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1、攻击与争议之后 解读斯金纳的 言语行为,主要内容,斯金纳的生平及贡献言语行为简介言语行为第4，6，13，17章解读,斯金纳的生平及贡献（1/4）,1904-1990美国在世的心理学家中最有影响的，在人类行为科学中最引起争辩的人物。美国时代周刊即使弗洛伊德也没有引起赞同者和敌对者完全不同的两个对立的阵容。不管是怎样看待斯金纳的工作，把他看成人类的救星或奴役者，我们都没法否定他对现代心理学的影响。现代心理学作者舒尔茨,斯金纳的生平及贡献（2/4）,1922年进入汉密尔顿学院，专修英文攻读生物学，胚胎学、解剖学、中枢神经系统生理学,读了华生和巴普洛夫的著作1930年获哈佛心理学硕士，1931年获哲学
2、博士学位。留校从事研究1936-1944明尼苏达大学任讲师、副教授1945年人印第安纳大学心理系教授、系主任1948哈佛大学心理学教授至1974年退休,斯金纳的生平及贡献（3/4）主要著作,斯金纳的生平及贡献（4/4）,“教学机器之父”。1958年美国心理学会授予他“卓越科学贡献奖”1968年他荣获美国国家科学奖章，这是美国最高级别的科学奖励1971年美国心理学基金会授予他一枚金质奖章1990年8月10日美国心理学会授予他“心理学毕生贡献奖”荣誉证书,言语行为简介-No black scorpion (1/6),言语行为研究的起源In 1934, in a casual discussion
3、with Professor Alfred North Whitehead at a dining tableHe (Whitehead) brought the discussion to a close with a friendly challenge: “Let me see you,” he said, “account for my behavior as I sit here saying, No black scorpion is falling upon this table.” the next morning I drew up the outline of the pr
4、esent study (Skinner 1957:457).,言语行为简介-No black scorpion(2/6),There was no black scorpion falling on the table. The response was emitted to make a point out of the blue. meant to be a poser just because it was not obviously controlled by a present stimulus.The response may have been weakly determine
5、d, but it was not necessarily free. The stimulus may not have been much, but in a determined system it must have been something. The black scorpion was a metaphorical response to the topic under discussion. The black scorpion was behaviorism. (ibid: 458),言语行为简介-No black scorpion(3/6),He proposed tha
6、t Whitehead was unconsciously expressing a fear of behaviorism, likening it to a black scorpion that he would not allow to intrude into his philosophy (Corballis 1999). I hope that he will agree that the analysis has shown respect for human achievement and that it is compatible with a sense of digni
7、ty- in short, that no black scorpion has fallen upon this table (ibid:460).,言语行为简介（4/6）,Skinner once said that his most important work was Verbal Behavior, and he suggested that, in the long run, it might have the greatest impact on psychology of any of his ideas (Lattal 1992).对言语行为的说明是斯金纳行为主义理论体系的重
8、要方面。他的言语行为一书历时23载才完成从写作到出版的过程，据此可见他在这一领域所耗费的心血。另一方面，却恰恰是这个领域，让斯金纳遭到了无力反击的攻击，也可以说是他的行为操作强化理论受到重大伤害的一个突破口（乐国安 1999）。,言语行为简介（5/6）,Verbal behavior: behavior reinforced through the mediation of other persons ( Skinner 1957:14). emphasizes the individual speaker and specifies behavior shaped and maintaine
9、d by mediated consequences( ibid:2).,言语行为简介(6/6),Men act upon the world, and change it, and are changed in turn by the consequences of their action( ibid:1).The extent to which we understand verbal behavior in a “causal” analysis is to be assessed from the extent to which we can predict the occurren
10、ce of specific instances and, eventually, from the extent to which we can produce or control such behavior by altering the conditions under which it occurs( ibid:3).,言语行为一书结构,Part I: A ProgramPart II: Controlling Variables Verbal behavior under the control of verbal stimuli Special conditions affect
11、ing stimulus controlPart III: Multiple VariablesPart IV: The Manipulation of Verbal Behavior Grammar and syntax as autoclitic processesPart V: The Production of Verbal Behavior Self-strengthening of verbal behavior,术语-Stimulus control,Prior stimuli in a three-term contingency of reinforcement: in th
12、e presence of a given stimulus, a given response is characteristically followed by a given reinforcement. Such a contingency is a property of the environment. When it prevails, the organism not only acquires the response which achieves reinforcement, it becomes more likely to emit that response in t
13、he presence of the prior stimulus. (ibid: 31)S-R-R,术语-Stimulus control,By reinforcing with candy we strengthen the response Candy! Subsequently we control the response, not by further reinforcement, but by depriving the child with candy (ibid: 31).,术语Generalized conditioned reinforcer,Any event whic
14、h characteristically precedes many different reinforcers can be used as a reinforcer to bring behavior under the control of all appropriate conditions of deprivation and aversive stimulation (ibid: 53). Example: approval,术语,Six operants:MandTactEchoic, textual, intraverbal, autoclitics.,术语-Mand,A ma
15、nd may be defined as a verbal operant in which the response is reinforced by a characteristic consequence and is therefore under the functional control of relevant conditions of deprivation or aversive stimulation( Skinner 1957:36)祈令语：一种言语操作反应，由有特征的结果强化，所以对它进行功能控制的是短缺状态或反感性刺激作用等条件。 包括疑问、请求、命令、威胁等等（王
16、宗炎 1982a） Example：Candy! Pass the salt!,术语-tact,Tact：a verbal operant in which a response of given form is evoked (or at least strengthened) by a particular object or event or property of an object or event. (skinner 1957:81-82)Tact 触发反应，触发语：言语操作反应，这个具有一定形式的反应，是由特定的对象或事件，或者这对象或事件的性质诱发（至少是增强）的。In a t
17、act, the response refers to, mentions, announces, talks about, names, denotes, describes its stimulus (ibid: 81).,第四章言语刺激控制下的言语行为,第四章言语刺激控制下的言语行为,The contribution of such response is particularly important when we come to examine how variables combine in sustained speech, and how the effect of the s
18、peakers own behavior leads him to compose and edit what he says and to manipulate it in verbal thinking. (Skinner 1958:80),第六章 影响刺激控制的特殊情况,普遍化强化的特殊量数 扭曲的触发反应：夸大、缩小、编造 （讲评书）非普遍化强化 - 来自听者操作行为的特殊强化：听者所采取的行动比普遍 化强化更为重要。 - 来自听者情感行为的强化 - 听者反应的强度：听者的“信仰” 来自于说话者本人的强化效果言语行为的惩罚读者,第十三章 语法和句法作为自向反应过程,I think it
19、s raining. 自向反应（autoclitics） ：describe, qualify, or otherwise comment upon verbal behavior and thus clarify or alter its effect upon the listener.（Skinner 1957:332） I recall, I imagine, for example, assume, Let X equal ; 否定用语；表述句和肯定句中的is, all, some, if, then,第十三章 语法和句法作为自向反应过程,本章的研究内容：不明显的表现出自向功能，本身
20、存在无意义， 包括介词，连词，冠词，词形变化。对言语反应（语言元素）的排序。关系自向反应：表明动词、名词、形容词之间在数、性、格的一致。,第十三章：关系自向行为,以功能为分析单位（Functional unity） milk! / Could I have some milk?言语行为的丰富性 As verbal behavior develops in the individual speaker, larger and larger responses acquire functional unity; as a verbal environment undergoes historica
21、l development, it reinforces larger and larger units. (ibid: 336),第十三章：关系自向行为,言语行为的创造性 Partially conditioned autoclitic “frames” combine with responses appropriate to a specific situation（ibid:336）. Partial frame： the boys _,第十三章：关系自向行为,言语行为的恰当性In complex situation, where several verbal operants are
22、 strengthened. “Effective behavior demands, to put it roughly, that an appropriate first response be chosen, and that other responses be related to this and to each other with appropriate autoclitics.(ibid:335)”-approapriate relational autoclitics added in composing the larger sample.Appropriate fir
23、st response: single propertyobjectaction (ibid: 337).,第十七章 言语行为的自我加强(1/2),A person controls his own behavior, verbal or otherwise, as he controls the behavior of others (ibid: 403).方法：操纵刺激 -自我提醒: introverbal relation - 自我探查 (self-probes) : crystal ball, tea leaves, fortune-telling cards. -改变听者变量：找到适
24、合的听者。改变编辑加工的程度 - 说话者或写作者“进入角色”。言语行为的机械产出 -对词的机械重组，可以成为提示。改变动机和情感变量仔细考虑,第十七章 言语行为的自我加强(2/2),Building new verbal responsesReading “for” knowledge or information is usually reading undertaken for the sake of the new verbal behavior which results. (ibid: 415),乔姆斯基的批判：无的放矢(1/3),斯金纳研究的是外部环境对语言习得和使用的重要作用，对
25、于人脑内部是否有特殊的语言机制，他并没有否认，只不过那不是他的研究重点。一个着重外部因素，一个着重内部心理，本身就是两个不同的领域（陈国华）。,乔姆斯基的批判：无的放矢(2/3),Chomskys criticisms of Skinner are, then, necessarily methodological. The disagreement is fundamentally an epistemological one, a “paradigm clash.”(MacCorquodale 1970)Noam Chomsky wrote a highly critical review
26、 of Skinners book which some, especially those who had not read Skinners book, felt had discredited Skinners work. But those who did read the book held that Chomsky had simply missed the point (Ledoux 2002).,乔姆斯基的批判：无的放矢(3/3),最后，美国的心理学界也不适应乔姆斯基讨论问题的方式了。他们总觉得乔姆斯基在学术上不是心平气和地和大家探索问题，而是搞对抗；不是做研究，而是“闹革命”
27、。因此乔姆斯基的“革命”在心里学界没有带来触目惊心的战斗，成了一次单方面的宣战（胡壮麟 2008）。Probably the strongest reason why no one has replied to the review is its tone. (MacCorquodale 1970).,乔姆斯基的批判：语言习得(1/2),乔姆斯基：It is simply not true that children can learn language only through meticulous care on the part of adults who shape their ver
28、bal repertoire through careful differential reinforcement (Chomsky 1959:42). 幼儿语言丰富，许多不曾说过，不可能经过操作强化而形成。,乔姆斯基的批判：语言习得(2/2),斯金纳认为语言习得的过程： The raw responses from which verbal behavior is constructed are not “elicited.” In order to be reinforced a given response we simply wait until it occurs. A child
29、acquires verbal behavior when relatively unpatterned vocalizations, selectively reinforced, gradually assume forms which produce appropriate consequences in a given verbal community (Skinner 1957: 31). Trial-and-error process (陈国华),乔姆斯基的批判：内部心理Vs外界因素 (1/3),乔姆斯基的误读： that the contribution of the speak
30、er is quite trivial and elementary, and that precise prediction of verbal behavior involves only specification of the few external factors that he has isolated experimentally with lower organisms (Chomsky 1959:28).,乔姆斯基的批判：内部心理Vs外界因素(2/3),影响言语行为的不仅仅是外部因素。Chapter 19 Thinking verbal behavior which can
31、not be observed by others is not properly part of our field.But there would be certain embarrassing gaps in our account. In intraverbal chaining, autoclitics, grammar, sentence composition, editing(Skinner 1957: 434),乔姆斯基的批判：内部心理Vs外界因素(3/3),Identify thinking with covert verbal behavior / subaudible
32、talking. Other “mental processes” (generalization, abstraction, reasoning) are not behaviors. They are controlling relations or the changes in probability which result from changes in such relations. He intends to account only for the objective dimensions of verbal behavior and to invoke only object
33、ive, nonmentalistic and nonhypothetical entities to account for it (MacCorquodale 1970).,乔姆斯基的批判：句子的形成,斯金纳：一个句子是摆在一个框架（skeletonal frame）上的一系列主要反映（名词、动词、形容词）。自向反应（包括词序）能把这些未经加工的反应处理一番，把其间各种关系表示出来，结果造成一个合语法的句子。乔姆斯基：句子是把若干词汇项目填入语法框架里构成，与传统哲学和语言学的说法一致，但在其内部过程中，先挑出某些词（如名、动、形）而后加以安排、修饰（自向反应）。乔（这是难以置信的猜想）（
34、the very implausible speculation that in the internal process of composition）,乔姆斯基的批判：句子的形成,乔：It is evident that more is involved in sentences structure than insertion of lexical items in grammatical frames. furiously sleep ideas green colorless.说明句子结构的内容显然不只是把词汇项目塞进语法框架里。斯：composition造句的过程是因为说话者过去的
35、言语行为不能为当前的变量提供恰当的反应，所以在自向反应的帮助下，说话者根据当前变量操控自己的言语反应。这个反应是由当前变量引发的，受prior stimulus控制的，而不是随意说出的。,斯金纳的辩护,呕心沥血之作遭到了来自语言学界和心理语言学界的反对。在操作行为的实验分析(1977)一文中：我相信，它（言语行为一书）将被证明是我最为重要的成果，它至今没有为语言学家或心理语言学家们所理解，这部分是因为它要求对操作分析作技术上的理解，还有更重要的部分是因为语言学家和心理语言学家们根本上关心的是听话的人关心语词对于听话的那些人意味着什么，关心听话者把何种类型的句子判别为合于语法的或不合于语言的。至
36、于沟通（communication）这个概念，无论是观念的沟通、意思的沟通、还是信息的沟通，强调的只是对听话者的传递。但在我看来， 把听话者的行为当成言语行为是没有什么价值的。（乐国安 1999）,总结,研究的是使用中的语言。从说话者，听话者和言语环境的互动中研究言语使用的功能。承认环境在语言学习和使用中的重要作用。对言语行为进行功能分析，语法不是重点。在语言产出和交际上，并不只是依靠外界的刺激，说话者本人也可以采取很多方法和控制自己的语言。,参考书目,Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. Long
37、man, Inc. Chomsky, N. (1959). A Review of B. F. Skinners Verbal Behavior. Language. 35 (1): 26-58. Lattal, K. A. (1992). B. F. Skinner and Psychology. American Psychologist (11): 1269-1272. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts. Corballis,M. (1999). The Gestural O
38、rigins of Language . American scientist.87: (2)Stephen F. Ledoux. (2002). An Introduction to the Elementary Verbal Operant Relations in the Verbal Behavior Analysis. www.behaviorology.org/pdf/VBTitle&BkGndFigs.pdf MacCorquodale, K. (1970). On Chomskys review of Skninners Verval behavior. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior. 13(1): 83-99叶浩生（2000）， 心理学理论精粹， 福州：福建教育出版社。王宗炎（1982），评斯金纳著言语行为，国外语言学1982（2）（3）（4）。 胡壮麟 （2008），行为主义学习理论为何批而不倒，英语教师（4）：4-7。乐国安（1999），行为研究到社会改造:斯金纳的新行为主义，武汉：湖北教育出版社。乐国安（1982a）， 从华生到斯金纳新老行为主义者的比较。外国心理学（2）：27-30。乐国安（1982b），论斯金纳的行为技术学，心理学探新（2）：43-47。,
