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1、第四讲：组织行为,Organizational BehaviorBehavior is defined as the actions of people. Organizational behavior is the study of the actions of people at work.,一个企业完成任务的基本行为方式包括哪些？,个体方式：职员被作为一个独立的个体来对待，工作任务、目标和报酬等以个体为导向。自我管理的团队方式：这种组织方式通常被定义为多个个体的集合，每一个成员与其他成员拥有一个共同的目标，每一个成员的报酬依赖于整个团队的经营业绩。层级组织的方式：某个人专职从事对其他成员
2、的监督和协调工作。尽管大多数企业一般都采用一定形式的层级结构，但是在正式权威方面却有很大的差异。,三种完成任务的行为方式存在哪些差异？,主要表现在：成员之间相互联系的程度和协调成本的大小。当任务不需要协调时，采用个体方式是比较适合的，例如设计工作；当协调变得非常必要的时候，团队方式就更合适一些。这样，每一个成员的产出可以直接受益于成员之间的频繁接触、技能互补和团队本身所产生的利益（例如成员之间的信息共享和共同价值观）。当按照团队方式很难对个体的产出进行监督和控制，当团队的规模达到到某种程度、协调的成本开始大大增加的时候，层级组织方式可能更为合适。,第十四章：个体行为 Individual Be
3、havior,1、态度Attitudes2、个性Personality 3、认知Perception 4、学习learning,Learning Objectives,You should learn to:Define the focus and goals of organizational behaviorDescribe the three components of an attitudeIdentify the role that consistency plays in attitudes,Learning Objectives,Explain the relationship
4、between satisfaction and productivityTell how managers can use the Myers-Briggs personality type framework and the big-five model of personality,Learning Objectives (cont.),Define emotional intelligenceDescribe attribution theory and its use in explaining individual behaviorIdentify the types of sho
5、rtcuts managers use in judging othersExplain how managers can shape employee behavior,Why Look At Individual Behavior?,Organizational Behavior (OB)concerned specifically with the actions of people at workaddresses issues that are not obvious,The Organization as an Iceberg,Why Look At Individual Beha
6、vior (cont.),Focus of OBindividual behavior - attitudes, personality, perception, learning, and motivationgroup behavior - norms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflictGoals of OBexplain, predict, and influence behaviormanagers success depends on getting things done through other people,Atti
7、tudes,Attitude Definition evaluative statements concerning objects, people, or eventsthree componentscognitive - beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information held by a personaffective - emotion or feelingterm attitude usually refers to this componentbehavioral - intention to behave in a certain way
8、toward someone or something,Attitudes (cont.),Job-Related Attitudes job satisfaction - employees general attitude toward her/his jobjob involvement - degree to which an employee identifies with her/his jobdegree of active participation in the jobfeeling that job performance is important to self-wort
9、horganizational commitment - employees loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in the organizationorganizational citizen behavior (OCB) - discretionary behavior that is not part of the formal job requirementspromotes effective functioning of the organization,Attitudes (cont.),Attitudes and
10、Consistencypeople seek consistency:among their attitudesbetween their attitudes and behaviorinconsistency gives rise to steps to achieve consistencyalter attitudes or behaviordevelop rationalization for the inconsistency,present employee with questions that elicit how they feel about their jobs, wor
11、k groups, supervisors, or the organizationattitude score is the sum of responses to individual items,Attitude Surveys,Sample Attitude Survey,Implications for managers,Satisfaction-Productivity Controversytraditional belief was that happy workers were productive workersresearch evidence suggests that
12、 if satisfaction has a positive influence on productivity, it is smallcontingency factors have clarified the relationship between satisfaction and productivityeffect of environmental factors that constrain employee behaviorresearch designs do not permit conclusions about cause and effect,态度的概念,态度由三个
13、部分组成:(1) 态度的认知成分由一个人所持有的信念、观点、知识或信息组成。(2) 态度的情感成分是态度中的情绪或感受部分。 (3) 态度的行为成分是指以某种方式对某人或某事做出反应的行为。,与工作相关的态度,工作满意度（Job satisfaction）是人对其工作的一般态度。 工作投入（ Job involvement）是员工认可自己的工作，主动参与工作，认为工作绩效对自己的个人价值很重要的程度。(3) 组织承诺（Organizational Commitment）是员工对组织的忠诚性、认可程度及参与程度。,对管理者的意义,有明显的证据表明，对于那些承诺和满意的员工来说，他们的离职率和缺勤
14、率很低。同时，那种为了提高生产率而以员工快乐为目标的做法可能会误入歧途。,PersonalityPersonality is defined as a combination of psychological traits that classifies a person.(个性是个体的心理特质的综合)Predicting behavior from personality traits(根据个性特质预测行为),Personality,Predicting Behavior from Personality TraitsLocus of Controlinternals - believe t
15、hat they control their own destinyexternals - believe their lives are controlled by outside forcesless satisfied and involved with their jobsmore alienated from the work settingMachiavellianism - people who are high on this trait:are pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, believe that ends can just
16、ify the meansare productive in jobs that require bargaining and have high rewards for success,Predicting Behavior from Personality Traits (cont.)Self-Esteem - degree of liking for oneselfrelated to expectations for successhigh self-esteem individualswill take risks in job selectionmore satisfied wit
17、h their jobslow self-esteem individuals susceptible to social influenceSelf-Monitoring - ability to adjust ones behavior to situational factorshigh self-monitors can present striking contradictions between their public persona and their private selves,Personality (cont.),君王论,在人类思想史上，没有一位思想家像马基雅维里那样受
18、到如此尖锐的毁与誉的了。近5个世纪以来，他的名字始终与阴险狡诈、背信弃义联系在一起。因为他在自己的经典著作君主论中描述了一个意大利君主如何壮大自己、排挤他人的基本行为和做法，并且为许多政治家和野心家效仿和实践。,在君主论的开篇首页，马基雅维里提出，“君主国不是世袭的就是自己开创的”。只要不改变相应的政策和人们的生活方式，并且有足够的智慧应付突发事件，世袭的国家比较容易管理；而自己开创的新君主国，管理起来就困难重重。因为那些被征服的君主国在文化、语言和习惯等方面征服者有很大的差异，要有效地控制被征服的君主国，运气和努力是必须的。,最有力的办法是征服者进驻；其次是征服者在一或二个关键要地把守。,同
19、时，马基雅维里在君主论中说过，“君主易变而且健忘，他随时准备改变自己的立场，只要对他有利，君主必须做到不仁，并且根据需要选择仁和不仁”。马基雅维里将人性的弱点毫无保留地揭示出来，希望人们理性地对待和顺势管理。,Predicting Behavior from Personality Traits (cont.)Risk-Taking - affects time required to make a decisionhow much information is required before making a choicePersonality Types in Different Cult
20、uresa countrys culture can influence dominant personality characteristics of its peoplee.g., national cultures differ in the strength of locus of control,Personality (cont.),Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI),Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) - four dimensionssocial interaction: Extrovert or Introv
21、ertpreference for gathering data: Sensing or Intuitivepreference for decision making: Feeling or Thinkingstyle of making decisions: Perceptive or Judgmental,Personality (cont.),Personality Traits (cont.)Big-Five Model of Personality - traits include degree of:extraversion - sociability, talkativenes
22、s, assertivenessagreeableness - good-natured, cooperative, trustingconscientiousness - responsibility, dependability, persistence, and achievement orientationpredicts job performance in a number of jobsemotional stability - calmness, enthusiasm, securityopenness to experience - imaginativeness, arti
23、stic sensitivity, and intellectualismpredicts training competency,Emotional Intelligence (EI)self-awareness - aware of what youre feelingself-management - ability to manage ones emotionsself-motivation - persistence in the face of setbacksempathy - ability to sense how others are feelingsocial skill
24、s - ability to handle the emotions of others,Personality (cont.),Implications for managersThe major value of a manager understanding personality differences probably lies in employee selection.,个性特质（Personality traits）,控制点（Locus of Control）权威主义（Authoritarianism）马基雅维里主义（Machiaviellism）自尊（Self esteem）
25、自我监控（Self monitoring）冒险型（Risk taking）,个性评估,社会的相互作用 (性格外向或内向)对资料收集的偏好（感觉或直觉）Preference for gathering data(sensing or intuitive)对决策的偏好（感觉或思考）Preference for decision making(felling or thinking)决策的风格（敏锐的或倾向于做出判断的）Style of making decision(perceptive or judgmental),对管理者的意义,管理者理解个性差异的主要价值可能在于选拔过程，管理者如果能在个性
26、类型与职业的匹配性方面予以考虑，将会拥有更高绩效和更满意的员工。,Perception,Definitionprocess by which individuals give meaning to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressionsnone of us sees realitywe interpret what we see and call it reality,Factors That Influence Perceptionperceiver - individuals pe
27、rsonal characteristics attitudes, personality, experience, expectationstarget - relationship of target to its background situation - time, location, light, color, and other environmental factors,Perception Challenges: What do you see?,Attribution Theory,used to explain how we judge people differentl
28、y depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviordevelop explanations of why people behave in certain waysinternal explanations - behavior under the control of the personexternal explanations - behavior the result of situational constraintse.g., chance, rules, custom,cause of behavior det
29、ermined by:distinctiveness - whether person displays a behavior in many situations or whether it is particular to one situationless distinctiveness leads to internal attributionconsensus - behavior of others in same situationhigh consensus leads to external attributionconsistency - regularity with w
30、hich person engages in the behaviorgreater consistency leads to internal attribution,Attribution Theory (cont.),Attribution Theory,errors and biases may distort attributionsfundamental attribution error - tendency to explain behavior of others by:overestimating the influence of internal factorsunder
31、estimating the influence of external factorsself-serving bias - personal success attributed to internal factorspersonal failure attributed to external factors,Attribution Theory (cont.),Perception (cont.),Shortcuts Frequently Used in Judging Othersmake perceptual task easiercan be valuable or lead t
32、o errorsselectivity - portions of stimuli bombarding ones senses are selected based on interests, background, and attitudes of the perceiverassumed similarity - “like me” effectperception of other based on perceived similaritiesstereotyping - base perceptions of an individual on ones impressions of
33、the group to which s/he belongshalo effect - general impression about a person is forged on the basis of a single characteristic,Implications for a managersManagers need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions,not reality.,影响认知的因素,许多因素影响着认知的形成有时造成了知觉的失真，这些因素有：认知者或人的特点，包括态度，个性，动机，兴趣，经验
34、和期望。 被认知的标的或客体：目的的特点以及目的同其背景的关系影响认知。 认知发生的情境（地点，光，热，颜色等）,判断行为原因依据三个因素 (1) 区别性是指在众多场合下都表现出这种行为还是仅在某一特定情境下表现这一行为。(2) 一致性是指每个人面对相似情境，对相同的行为都有相同的反应。(3)一贯性是指人的行为的持续一贯性。,导致归因失真的错误或偏见,基本归因错误（Functional attribution error） 是指人们在评价他人行为时，低估外部因素的影响而高估内部因素的影响的倾向。自我服务偏见（Self-serving bias ）是个体倾向把自己的成功归因为内部因素，而把失败归
35、因于外部因素。,评价他人行为时常走的捷径,(1) 选择性接受（Selectivity）是指人们根据自己的兴趣、背景、态度和经验等对观察到的信息进行主动选择 的过程。(2) 假设相似性（Assumed similarity）是假定别人和我们类似 。 (3) 刻板印象（Stereotyping）是以个体所在的团体知觉为基础对个体的判断。 (4) 晕轮效应（Halo effect）是根据个体的某个特征而建立对总体的印象。,对管理者的意义,管理者需要认识到，员工根据知觉而不是客观现实做出反应。,Learning,Definition any relatively permanent change in
36、 behavior that occurs as a result of experiencealmost all complex behavior is learnedOperant Conditioningargues that behavior is a function of its consequencesdescribes voluntary or learned behaviorreinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood that it will be repeatedpleasing con
37、sequences that follow a specific behavior increases the frequency of that behavior,Learning (cont.),Social Learninglearning by observing other people and direct experienceinfluence of model determined by:attentional processes - must recognize and attend to critical features of the modelretention pro
38、cesses - must remember the models actionsmotor reproduction processes - performing actions observed in the modelreinforcement processes - positive incentives necessary to motivate performance of the models actions,Learning (cont.),Shaping: A Managerial Toolshape behavior by systematically reinforcin
39、g each successive step that moves the individual closer to the desired behaviorshaping accomplished by:positive reinforcement - desired response is followed by something pleasantnegative reinforcement - desired response followed by eliminating or withdrawing something unpleasantpunishment - undesira
40、ble behavior followed by something unpleasantextinction - no rewards follow undesired response,Learning (cont.),Implications for Managersmanage employee learning by means of rewardspositive and negative reinforcement strengthen a desired behaviortend to increase its frequencypunishment and extinctio
41、n weaken an undesired behaviortend to decrease its frequencymanagers should serve as modelsset examples of the desired behavior,Implications for managersManagers can clearly benefit from understanding the learning process.Implications for individual: Individual learningIncremental learningAdaptive l
42、earningDevelopmental learning,社会学习理论 (SLT),社会学习理论认为，人们通过观察和直接经验进行学习。业已得到证实，榜样的影响是社会学习的核心。人们发现四个过程决定了榜样对个体学习的影响(1) 注意过程（Attentional Process）(2) 保持过程（Retention process）(3) 动力复制过程（Motor re-production）(4) 强化过程（Reinforcement process）,四个过程,(1) 注意过程: 只有当人们认识到榜样的重要特点时，彩绘想榜样学习。 (2) 保持过程：榜样的影响取决于个体对榜样活动的记忆程度，
43、即使当榜样不再真正出现时。(3) 主动模仿过程：个体通过观察而能够执行榜样的活动。(4) 强化过程：如果提供了积极的奖励，个体会被激励从事榜样的行为。,行为塑造,行为塑造是系统的强化每一连续步骤而使个体越来越趋近理想反应。这是一个有用的管理工具。行为塑造有四种方法：(1)积极强化（Positive reinforcement）;(2)消极强化（ Negative reinforcement）; (3)惩罚（ Punishment）; (4) 消除（Extinction）.,行为塑造的四种方式,(1) 积极强化是在一个行为发生后而出现的愉快的事情。(2) 消极强化是中止或逃避不愉快事件的反应而获
44、得奖励。(3) 惩罚指对不希望出现的行为的处罚。(4) 消除是指祛除任何维持行为的强化物的办法。,第十五章：组织和团队行为UNDERSTANDING GROUPS AND TEAMS,Learning Objectives,You should learn to:Differentiate between formal and informal groupsDescribe the five stages of group developmentIdentify how roles and norms influence an employees behavior,Learning Objec
45、tives,You should learn to:the key components in the group behavior modelIdentify the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making,Learning Objectives (cont.),You should learn to:Explain the increased popularity of teams in organizationsDescribe the four most common types of teams in organiz
46、ationsList the characteristics of effective teamsIdentify how managers can build trust,Understanding Group Behavior,Grouptwo or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goalsformal groups - established by the organizationhave designated work assignments
47、 and specific tasksdifferent types existinformal groups - occur naturally in the workplace in response to the need for social contact,Examples of Formal Groups,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Stages of Group Developmentforming - people join the group either because of a work assignment or for s
48、ome other benefitbegin to define the groups purpose, structure, and leadershipstage marked by much uncertaintystorming - acceptance of the groups existenceconflict over who will control the groupnorming - relationships and a sense of group identity developgroup assimilates a common set of expectatio
49、ns of what defines correct member behavior,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Stages of Group Development (cont.)performing - group structure is functional and acceptedgroup energy has moved to task performanceadjourning - group prepares to disbandattention devoted to wrapping up activitiesgroup d
50、oes not necessarily become more effective as it moves through the first four stagesgroup effectiveness is a complex issue that is affected by factors other than developmental stage,Stages Of Group Development,Prestage,Stage IForming,Stage IIStorming,Stage IIINorming,Stage VAdjourning,Stage IVPerform
