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1、Chapter 2 Communication Between Cultures:Verbal Communication,Introductory Case,一位刚到美国的中国企业经理，被美国朋友请去做客。这位经理到这位美国人家里后，觉得其房屋陈设很奇怪。突然他发现一个台子上竟摆着一尊泥塑的孙悟空，他很兴奋，连忙问女主人：“你怎么会有这尊孙悟空？是从中国买的吗？花了多少钱？用的是人民币还是美元？” 女主人只是笑了笑，没有回答。这位中国经理也没有再问下去。,分析：美国人的价值观念和中国人不同，价钱的高低往往与身份密切相关。中国经理无心提出的价钱问题，却使得这位美国人不知如何回答是好。在言语交际
2、(verbal communication)的过程中，交际双方必须考虑语言的语音层面和语用层面，承认不同的文化背景和差异，增强理解和信任，才能通过语言促进沟通，实现交际的目的，建立良好的关系。,Verbal communication,Definition: The communication that is carried out either in oral or in written form with the use of words.The transferring of thoughts between individuals via spoken or written messa
3、ges.It is at the core of what most of us do - whether you are building a biz, dealing with difficult situations , revitalizing a team, coping with complaints or providing customer service.,Attributes of Verbal Communication,Express all kinds of ideas we want to expressEg: A manager talks market deve
4、lopment plan with his subordinates in a meeting.Keep and disseminate informationEg: A manager can be reached by telephone or email if you cant find him in his office. Telephone and Email are the most effective ways for biz communication. Be clearer and more efficient than other ways.,Language and Cu
5、lture,Language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols and rules that are used and understood by a large community of people.It is closely related to culture. Language and culture interact with each other and shape each other. Language is the carrier of culture which in turn is
6、 the content of language.It is part of culture. Culture enriches and influences language. Different culture generate different languages.,The Influence of Culture on Language,Language as a reflection of the environmentLanguage reflects the environment in which we live. We label things that are aroun
7、d us. The environment influences the development of technology, products, and the appropriate vocabulary.Language as reflection of valuesLanguage reflects cultural values.Language is a mirror of culture, because language reflects human relationships, reflects the way the society operates.,亲属称谓是语言反映文
8、化的一个突出例证。例如，在英语中的是 “兄”或“弟”，是“姐”或“妹”，汉语中没有一个字与或完全相等。在我们的文化中严格区分“兄”与“弟“、姐与“妹”，因为“长幼有序”。英语中一词 “uncle” 相当于汉语中的“伯父、叔父、舅父、姨父、姑父,” “aunt”相当于汉语中的“伯母、婶母、舅母、姨母、姑母”。这反映了汉族不仅注重长幼顺序，而且对于是父系、母系或姻系亦十分重视。,Chinese way of greeting,For thousands of years, about 75% of the Chinese lived in villages and the rest in smal
9、l towns. A community generally consists of families descended from one ancestor, bearing the same surname. In this community, people know each other well, keeping track of each others lives, being aware of happenings in each others households and having a genuine concern for each others well-being.,
10、Therefore, familiarity, consideration for each others comfort and health, and an interest in each others business and activities are found in the life of the Chinese people.That is why when Chinese people meet, they often exchange greetings such as “Have you eaten yet?” “Where are you going?” “Where
11、 have you been?” etc.But in America, there is a saying “good fences make good neighbors” revealing that they tend to keep a safe distance from each other.,Denotational meaning,Connotational meaning,a word,Meanings of Words,Word Meaning and Culture,Denotational meaning (指示意义)It refers to a definition
12、al meaning depending upon our choice of word selection.Denotation means a dictionary definition.Connotational meaning (隐含意义)It refers to extended meanings or associated meanings.Connotational meanings have developed over time through use by people and especially by poets and writers.,Example: The Co
13、lor of Red In Chinese red implies “happy, joyous, auspicious, flourishing.” The Chinese use red lanterns, red antithetical couplets, red dresses, red candles, red flowers and the like when we are in celebration. In English, red is usually associated with sth. undesirable, e.g., “red flags” denotes “
14、danger”, “in the red” means “deficit in finance.”,Spring Festival,Christmas Day,Comparison between English and Chinese,Some words have the same denotational and conntational meanings.There are also many words with the same denotational meanings but different connotational meanings.Both denotational
15、and connotatinal meanings are different in many other words.,Examples,Dove: peaceFox: cunningOwl: wisdomBat: an evil animalCricket: a happy insectDragon: fierceness,鸽子：和平鸽狐狸：像狐狸一样狡猾猫头鹰：坏运气蝙蝠：福，幸福，洪福蟋蟀：哀愁龙：龙袍，龙的传人(Chinese Dragon),European Dragon,Chinese Dragon,Cultural Associations of Color,Business
16、Implications,International businesspersons may encounter problems with such connotational meanings of colors.International marketers need to know what associations certain culture has in terms of colors and how they might affect product design, packaging, and advertising messages.,在不同语言之间可能出现几种不同的情况
17、：（两种语言分别以A,B代替）1）A,B 概念意义相同，内涵意义相同或大致相同。例如：Fox与“狐狸”不仅概念意义相同，内涵意义也相同，都包括了“狡猾” cunning 这一层意思。Pig与“猪”在概念上都指同一种动物，在英语中用于指人时具有“肮脏”dirty、“贪婪”greedy、“令人讨厌”disgusting等意思，“猪”（或猪猡）在汉语中也有类似的含义。,2）A,B概念意义相同，内涵意义不同。如：“狗”：在西方人们通常将狗作为宠物来养，狗被认为是人类最好的朋友，因此西方人对于食狗肉十分反感。在英语中有时含有贬义，但总的来说属中性或含褒义的情况居多。在成语treat someone li
18、ke a dog（虐待某人）中含贬义，但在以下的例句中都属中性或含褒义：You lucky dog.（你这家伙真幸运）。Every dog has its day.（凡人皆有得意日）。He works like a dog.（他工作很卖力）。You cant teach an old dog new tricks（人年纪大了学新东西不容易。）在汉语中，“狗”一般用于贬义，这从汉语中的成语可以看，例如，狗急跳墙、狗仗人势、鸡鸣狗盗、狼心狗肺、狗头军师、狗血喷头等。,3）A,B概念意义相同，A有内涵意义，B无内涵意义在数词中，在西方语言中13普遍被认为是不祥的数字，因为这个数字与犹大出卖耶稣，耶稣
19、受难相联系。人们通常避开13这个数字，在旅行时尤其避开13号星期五。订婚结婚也避开13号。有的饭店不设13层，避开13号作为房间号码。在我国文化传统中，13不具有这些不祥的含义。但在近年，由于受到西方文化的影响，有些人也认为是个不吉利的数字。,In the figure, some people see a duck, some people see a rabbit, and others alternately see a duck and a rabbit .,In the picture, some see the profile of an Indian while others s
20、ee the back of an Eskimo walking away, and still others alternately see both.,Seeing does not mean believing, sometimes. Focus on the dot and move your head back and forth. What is happening?,From responding to these pictures, we can gather that people see differently and evaluate differently. Such
21、an understanding helps form the basis for successful intercultural communication.,1. AppropriatelyC. Dogs are the best friends of human beings. I ate dog meat.A. Chinese dragons are great. Chinese dragons are ferocious.,2. Effectively C. This is a present for you. It is not so good. This is a presen
22、t for you. Hope you like it.A. I dont think your idea is good. From my point of view, your idea is not good enough.,How to use language for communication?,3. Given contextC. Bottom up. Take this cup of alcohol. If you dont. Me either.A. Help yourself, please. I made all these by myself. Please enjoy
23、 them.,4. Speaker & listener Where are you from? How many people are there in your family? Why did you come to China? How old are you? How much do you earn in your company?,Language in use and Culture,How to Address people: The usage of the surname and given name in English and Chinese can be summar
24、ized as follows:,在一项对于英语国家在华任教的教师的调查中发现，有的中国学生用姓作为对于一位女教师的称谓。她的全名Marcia Vale是，学生理应称她为Dr. Vale 或 Marcia，但有的学生直呼她的姓，叫她Vale，这引起了这位英国教师极大的不快。她在调查问卷中写道：“在交往中，我发现这可能是挺奇怪的最不能容忍的是学生坚持用我的姓称呼我。在英语口语中，从正式的到很随便的称呼，有许多不同的方式。如果只叫姓，那是绝对错误的。”在汉语中“老张”“、小李”“、司徒”、“欧阳”作为称谓都是可接受的，但是在英语国家用姓作称谓只限于很少的几种情况，例如，在小学里教师对于学生，教练对
25、于球员，监狱看守对于囚犯等。难怪英国教师对于学生的称呼如此反感。,Different perceptions of titles,Chinese prefer to address others by using their titles, or occupation, such as 宋局长(Director Song), 高经理(Manager Gao), 刘老师(Teacher Liu) in which the surname comes last in order to show respect for the person concerned.However, this custo
26、m is not totally applicable in English in that only a few occupations or titles are used before a persons last name: Dr., Mrs., Miss, Ms., Mr., Judge, Governor, Mayor, etc.,For Americans, its what you actually do that counts, not where you fit on organizational chart. The Americans treat titles like
27、 “vice president for marketing” and “sales manager” as meaningful. But they will not use them to address a person, even if reduced to “manager” or “vice president”.The use of respectful titles such as “Manager Zhang” or “Director Wang” to indicate peoples status is typical of Chinese culture.,How to
28、 show gratitude,In the Western countries, people tend to verbalize their gratitude more often and accept thanks more directly and frankly than Chinese people.Westerners say thanks anytime, anywhere, and to anybody, even among family members. They tend to accept others expression of gratitude by sayi
29、ng “Im glad to help”.Chinese are likely to feel embarrassed when they express their gratitude or here others gratitude. They may just say nothing for being helped and reply to “thanks” with “no,no” for having helped.,How to invite others,InvitationThree features of “false” invitations in American En
30、glish: Indefinite reference of time No inquiry or immediate reply or decision Usually marked with model verbs like “must”, “should”, and adverbs indicating emphasis of uncertainty of time like “really”, “definitely”, “soon”, “one day”, “some time”, etc.,美国人常在结束交流之前向对方说句“邀请”用语，如“Lets get together som
31、etimes this week, I will call you.” “Lets have lunch together sometimes soon.” 这很容易引起异文化的人的误解。在美国的外国留学生常常反映美国人讲话靠不住，说是要邀请吃饭，结果等了很久还是不兑现。其实这些所谓邀请往往是结束交谈的信号，是自然发出的告辞用语，表示对所谈内容感兴趣，希望下次继续交流之意。,有人调查了这一现象，发现问题出在外国学生对于美国英语的讲话规则不了解，听美国人说：We must get together soon.（“我们一定得聚聚。”）就以为是正式邀请，实际上只不过是一句客气话。社会语言学家专门就这
32、个题目作了研究，分析究竟客气话与正式的口头邀请在语言的使用上有什么区别。他们发现正式邀请比客气话要具体得多，一般来说邀请需要包括时间、地点。例如：Come over for diner next Saturday night. （“下星期六晚上过来吃晚饭。”）是明确的邀请。有的话听起来似乎很像是邀请，但如果没有具体的时间、地点则仍然不能看作是邀请。,How to chat with others,Privacy, as a value and psychological concept, has been given different meanings in different cultur
33、es.For westerners, keeping privacy has been seen as the symbol of independence and personal value. In conversation, they seldom or never ask questions related to privacy, such as age, money, marriage, health, and family.On the contrary, such questions are frequently asked in dialogs between two Chin
34、ese. For Chinese, privacy is of group-orientation, and individuals in the same group would not have much awareness of privacy.,Being modest,Being modest is one of the traditional virtues of the Chinese people. We often decline praise to show modesty. We often reply with pleasant modesty when being p
35、raised.However, Americans like praising people. Receiving such a reply of refusal, they often wonder whether they have made a wrong judgment or not.,A young Chinese woman in the US was complimented by an American woman for the lovely dress she was wearing: “Its exquisite. The colors are so beautiful
36、!” She was pleased but somewhat embarrassed. In typical Chinese way, she replied, “Oh, its just an ordinary dress I bought in China.”,In the above case, the words of the Chinese conveyed a message quite different from what was intended. As we all know, the real intention of the Chinese was to be mod
37、est by saying those words. While for the American, the reply could have meant that the American did not know what a really good dress is. The implication was that the American womans taste in clothing was questionable.,Oral Communication,Think about it:What are the differences in the speech styles b
38、etween Easterners and Westerners? Such as a Chinese or Japanese with an American.,Chinese Verbal Style,Implicit communication（含蓄）Listening centeredness（听话）Politeness（客气）A focus on insiders（自己人） Face-directed communication strategies（面子）,Chinese VS. North American Verbal Style,What is not said vs. wh
39、at is saidThe use of we vs. I Polite vs. impolite talkIndirect vs. direct talkHesitant vs. assertive speechself-effacing (不出风头) vs. self-enhancing talkPrivate vs. public personal questionsReticent (沉默的)vs. expressive speech,Ways of VC between Easters and Westerners,Easterners are generally more poli
40、te, beat about the bush, reasons first, conversational greetings, concern for others, vague, talk the same time.,Do you agree with such saying?,As what has been explained above, verbal communication can be conducted both in spoken form and written form. It has cultural features sometimes. Therefore,
41、 people from different cultural backgrounds have different ways of verbal communication. In the following we just show how differently the Easterners and the westerners communicate.,Ways of VC between Easters and Westerners,When talking, Easterners tend, often superficially, to yield to the other pa
42、rtys views without making any open protest. Westerners, however, are usually direct in presenting their different ideas or protest.,Superficial and direct,Beat about the bush and come to the point,Easterners are usually indirect while Westerners are direct when expressing themselves.,In the language
43、s by Easterners there are quite a few honorific forms which Westerners think are redundant. Westerners do have polite expressions, but for each meeting the phrase for exchanging these expressions is usually very short. To Easterners, Westerners appear rude.,Being polite or being rude,Reasons first a
44、nd personal opinions first,When it comes to a position, Easterners tend to state the reasons first. Westerners, on the contrary, usually state their position first, then the reasons.,Before discussion Easterners tend to spend a lot of time talking about unimportant things, preparing for the serious
45、discussion. Westerners dont do so.,Conversational greetings and get down to business,Easterners often show a lot of concern for others, which Westerners consider as bothering other peoples business.,Concern for others and none of my business,Easterners tend to be vague when talking, which often brin
46、g unhappiness to Westerners as it is against their habit.,Vague and above the board,When debating in the West, two parties usually take several turns of arguments, while in the East the two sides express their respective views at most once, then both sides either yield to each other, or just keep si
47、lent,The same time and take turns,Common ideas that seem to work wonders in any relationship,1) Learn to listen using eye contact: Let the speaker know that you are interested in what is being said.,2) Be slow to speak: Sometimes, people speak to think out loud. Sometimes, all they really want is a
48、shoulder to lean on and a willing ear to listen. By being slow to speak, you are allowing the speaker to work out or solve problems themselves,3) Keep the secret: People trust you with information because they believe that you will not gossip and spread slander. Keep their trust by keeping things pr
49、ivate; between the two of you.,4) Be Attentive: Learn to actively listen. Let the speaker know that you are actually listening, although you are not speaking, by saying things like, yeah, hmmm, I know, thats true, okay, that makes sense, and so forth.,5) Show Gratitude: Let the speaker know that you
50、 feel honored that they were able to open up to you. If nothing personal was said, than let the speaker know that you had a great time listening and that you learned a lot. In a society that forgets to show gratitude, a simple use of kind words, can make someones day a little brighter.,6) Stay in Tu
