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1、Chapter 6 Pragmatics,Some basic notions Speech act theory Principle of conversation Cross-cultural pragmatic failure,What is pragmatics?,Pragmatics studies the meaning in the context of language use.,The view of traditional semantics,The meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and
2、 inherent, i.e., a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in isolation from language use. 语言的意义被认为是内在的、固有的，即依附于语言自身的特征。因此，词的意义和句子的意义都应该从语言运用中孤立出来加以研究。,Pragmatics vs. semantics,What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics
3、is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.,Context,It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge
4、shared by the speaker and the hearer. Context determines the speakers use of language and also the hearers interpretation of what is said to him.,Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning (句子意义与话语意义),A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is abstract and isolated from contex
5、t.If the sentence is uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, it becomes an utterance. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent.,The relationship between the two,The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meanin
6、g of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.,Speech act theory (言语行为理论),It was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin (约翰奥斯汀) in the late 50s of the 20th century. According to the speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.According to
7、 his new model, a speak might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.,locutionary act (言内行为): the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. (传达字面意义) illocutionary act (言外行为): the act of expressing the speakers intention. (表明说话
8、意图) perlocutionary act (言后行为): the effect of the utterance. (话语产生的效果),Searles classification of speech acts (塞尔对言语行为的分类),John Searle: American philosopher linguist One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of illocutionary acts.According to Searle, speech acts fall into five gen
9、eral categories:,Five general categories,1.representatives (阐述类): stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.In other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which himself believes to be true, su
10、ch as stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing. Examples: P83: (6-9) (6-10),2.directives (指令类): trying to get the hearer to do something, such as inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering.Examples: Open the window! Youd batter go to the clinic. Your money or your
11、life! Would you like to go to the picnic with us?,missives (承诺类): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. (对未来的某个行为作出承诺) That is to say, when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases. Examples: I p
12、romise to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.,4. expressives (表达类): expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. Examples: Im sorry for the mess I have made. Its really kind of you to have thought of me.,5. declarations (宣告
13、类): bringing about immediate changes by saying something. Examples: I now declare the meeting open. I appoint you chairman of the committee. I fire you!,Indirect speech acts (间接言语行为),It was proposed by John Searle.According to Searle, when a speaker is using indirect language, he is performing two s
14、peech acts simultaneously: primary speech act (首要言语行为) and secondary speech act (次要言语行为).The primary speech act is the speakers goal of communication while the secondary speech act is the means by which he achieves his goal.Example: P85: (6-28),Principle of conversation (会话原则),Paul Grice (格赖斯), an A
15、merican philosopher and logician, holds that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. Two kinds of implied meaning or implicature: conventional implicature (规约含意) and non- conventional impli
16、cature (非规约含意).particularized conversational implicature (特殊会话含意) - should be inferred by the hearer with reference to the context of communication.,Cooperate Principle (CP) 合作原则,General Principle: P87 Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the acce
17、pted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. 在参与交谈时，要使你说的话符合你所参与的交谈的公认的目的或方向。,Four maxims of CP:,The maxim of quantity (数量准则)The maxim of quality (质量准则)The maxim of relation (关系准则)The maxim of manner (方式准则),The maxim of quantity (数量准则),Make your contribution as informativ
18、e as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) 你所说的话应包含(当前交谈意图)所需要的信息Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 所说的话不应包含超出需要的信息,The maxim of quality (质量准则),Do not say what you believe to be false. 不要说自知是假的话Do nor say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说缺乏根据的话
19、,The maxim of relation (关系准则),Be relevant. 要有关联性,The maxim of manner (方式准则),Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免表达晦涩Avoid ambiguity. 避免歧义Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 要简练 (避免不必要的冗繁)Be orderly. 要条理清晰,Conversational implicature (会话含意),Conversational implicature occurs only when the maxims are “
20、flouted”. Flouting a maxim means violating it blatantly, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation. Examples: P88.,Cross-cultural pragmatic failure (跨文化语用失误),Pragmatic failure refers to communication breakdown resulting from being unable to really understand each other. Pragmat
21、ic failures occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speakers utterance in the context of communication.,Two kinds of pragmatic failure,Pragmalinguistic
22、 failure (语用语言失误) is closely linked with language itself, referring to the case that learners unconsciously transfer their native expressions into the target language.Sociopragmatic failure (社交语用失误) is closely related to culture, referring to language expression mistakes caused by having no knowledge or ignoring the differences of cultural backgrounds between two countries.Examples: P90.,Assignments,1. Review P77-91.2. Do the revision exercises on P92.3. Preview the next chapter.,
