双语分子生物学课件.ppt

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1、中北大学化工与环境学院生物工程专业 Molecular Biology(分子生物学),主讲: 张志军 博士、博导、副教授,埃博拉病毒,截至2014年8月26日,埃博拉已在塞拉利昂、利比亚和几内亚造成1427人死亡。 2014年8月9日,中国宣布已掌握埃博拉病毒抗体基因,同时具备对埃博拉病毒进行及时检测的诊断试剂研发能力,这让世界为之惊喜。,主要参考教材,PC Turner et al. Instant Notes in Molecular Biology (Second edition). BIOS Scientific Publishers Limited, 2000分子生物学(第三版)导读

2、版(精要速览系列)朱玉贤,李毅,郑晓峰编著。现代分子生物学(第3版) 高等教育出版社 2007-11-1 Robert F. Weaver Molecular biology 2004. (Third edition),分子生物学学习方法及注意问题,专心听讲做好笔记认真思考学会归纳注意纪律预习复习,课程主要内容,1.1 Cellular classification1.2 Subcellular organelles1.3 Macromolecules1.4 Large macromolecular assemblies,1. Cells and macromolecules,1.1 Cell

3、ular classification,Prokaryotes:Eubacteria (真细菌) Acchaea(古细菌)Eukaryotes:Plants AnimalsFungi Protist(原生生物),Prokaryotes and eukaryotes,Schematic of a eukaryotic cell,Schematic of a prokaryotic cell,Differentiation (分化),1.2 Subcellular organelles (亚细胞器),Nuclei nucleoli(核仁), nucleusMitochondria and Chlo

4、roplastsEndoplasmic reticulumMicrobodiesOrganelle isolation,Nuclei,Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes,Mitochondria and Chloroplasts,Microbodies: lysosome,1.3 Macromolecules,Proteins Nucleic acids PolysaccharidesLipidsComplex macromolecules,Proteins polymers of amino acids, peptide bonds,Nucleic aci

5、ds DNA and RNA, polymers of nucleotides, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA,PolysaccharidesPolymers of simple sugars, glycoside bondsThey functions mainly as nutritional sugar stores and as structural material.Cellulose, starch, chitin, mucopolysaccharides(黏多糖),LipidsKey components of membranes, protective coats and

6、other structures.Glycerides (甘油酯), phospholipids(磷脂),sphingolipids(鞘脂,如神经氨酰),Complex macromoleculesNucleoproteins(核蛋白), ribozyme(核糖体)GlycoproteinsProteoglycans (mucoproteins)蛋白多糖(粘蛋白) Lipid-linked proteinsglycolipids,1.4 Large macromolecular assemblies,Protein complexesCytoskeleton: microtubules, mi

7、crofilaments, intermediate filamentsThese organize the shape and movement of cells and subcellular organelles.Cilia and flagella (纤毛和鞭毛 ) are also composed of microtubules complexed with dynein and nexin(动力蛋白和连接蛋白 ).,NucleoproteinsBacterial 70S ribosomes: 50S larger subunit (23S and 5S RNA + 31 prot

8、eins)+30S small subunit (16S RNA + 21 proteins) Eukayotic 80S ribosomes: 60S larger subunit (28S, 5.8S and 5S RNAs + 31 proteins)+40S small subunits (18S RNA)Chromotin contains DNA and the basic histone proteins.,MembranesMembrane phospholipids and sphingolipids (鞘脂) form bilayers.Membrane proteins

9、may be peripheral (外周的) or integral (整合的)and act as receptors, enzymes, transporters or mediators of cellular interaction.,Noncovalent interaction (非共价互作)Charge-charge (电荷) interactionsCharge-dipole(偶极) and dipole-dipole interactionHydrogen bonds 氢键Hydrophobic interaction 疏水相互作用,思考题,试述原核和真核细胞的异同点。亚细

10、胞器主要有哪些?各自主要结构和功能是什么?生物大分子包括哪些?分别叙述其组成结构。试举出三种大分子的组装形式。,2 Nucleic acid and Chromosome,Including,2.1 Properties of nucleic acid2.2 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic chromosome structure,2.1 Properties of nucleic acid,2.1.1 Nucleic acid structure2.1.2 Chemical & physical properties2.1.3 Spectroscopic (光谱学) &

11、 thermal (热力学) properties2.1.4 DNA supercoiling,2.1.1 Nucleic acid structureBasesNucleosides(核苷) base+sugarNucleotides (核苷酸) base+sugar+phosphatePhosphodiester bonds,Bases DNA: adenine(A), guanine(G), cytosine(C), thymine(T)RNA: adenine(A), guanine(G), cytosine(C), uracil(U),DNA/RNA sequence Convent

12、ionally, DNA or RNA are represented by their single letter A, T, G, C or U.Write the sequences with 5-end at the left. DNA: 5-ATAAGCTC-3 or ATAAGCTC RNA: 5-AUAGCUUGA-3 direction: ATAAG is not the same as GAATA,DNA double helixBase pairingComplementary base pairsAntiparallelminor groove; major groove

13、right-handed (clockwise)B-formOverwound; underwound, The B-form of DNA is a double helix consisting of two polynucleotide chains that run antiparallel. The nitrogenous bases of each chain are flat purine or pyrimidine rings that face inwards and pair with one another by hydrogen bonding to form A-T

14、or G-C pairs only. The diameter of the double helix is 20 , and there is a complete turn every 34 , with 10 base pairs per turn. The double helix forms a major (wide) groove and a minor (narrow) groove.,Key Concepts,A, B and Z helices,ZDNA:它是左手双螺旋,与右手螺旋的不同是螺距延长(4.5nm左右),直径变窄(1.8nm),每个螺旋含12个碱基对,分子长链中

15、磷原子不是平滑延伸而是锯齿形排列,有如“之”字形一样,因此叫它Z构象,这一构象中的重复单位是二核苷酸而不是单核苷酸;而且ZDNA只有一个螺旋沟,它相当于B构象中的小沟,它狭而深,大沟则不复存在。进一步的分析还证明,ZDNA的形成是DNA单链上出现嘌呤与嘧啶交替排列所成的。比如CGCGCGCG或者CACACACA。,不同右手双螺旋DNA的结构参数,双螺旋 碱基倾碱基夹碱基间距螺距 每轮碱 小沟宽nm大沟宽nm 角()角()/nmnm基数小沟宽nm 大沟宽nmB-DNA036.00.3373.4100.570.751.170.85C-DNA638.00.3313.19.3 0.480.791.05

16、0.75D-DNA 45.00.303 0.130.67 0.890.58A-DAN20 32.70.2562.8111.100.28 0.271.35总之,DNA的双螺旋结构永远处于动态平衡中,DNA分子构象的变化与糖基和碱基之间空间相对位置有关。,2.1.2 Chemical & physical properties of nucleic acid Stability of nucleic acids Hydrogen bondingHydrophobic interactions and dipole-dipole interactions,Effect of acid Strong

17、acid -hydrolyzed completely, HClO4, 100Moderate acid-the most easily hydrolyzed bonds are selectively broken, hydrolysis of the purine base glycosylic bonds-apurinic(脱嘌呤).More complex chemistry has been developed which removes bases specially, and cleaves the DNA or RNA at particular bases.,Effect o

18、f alkaliTo change the tautomeric(互变异构的) state of the bases.Chemical denaturation urea(尿素) and formamide(甲酰胺)Viscosity(粘性) Cellular DNA is very long and thin, solutions have a high viscosity.Long DNA molecules are easy be damaged by shearing forces or by sonication,Buoyant density (浮力密度)8M CsCl, 1.7g

19、 cm-3Equilibrium density gradient centrifugation of DNA,CsCl 密度梯度离心分离DNA,离心分离密度大于1.3g/cm3的样品,如DNA、RNA,需要使用密度比蔗糖和甘油大的介质。重金属盐氯化铯(CsCl)是目前使用的最好的离心介质。,离心分离细胞组分和生物分子是最常用的分离方法,因为不同的细胞器和分子有不同的体积和密度,可在不同离心力的作用下沉降分离。,不同的细胞器、大分子和病毒的密度及相应的沉降系数,2.1.3 Spectroscopic & thermal propertiesUV absorption max=260nm (bo

20、th DNA and RNA)Hypochromicity (减色性) The extinction coefficient (消光系数) depends on environment. absorbance: isolated nucleotides RNA, ss DNA ds DNAHypochromicity. dsDNA is hypochromicitic with respect to ss DNA,Quantitation(定量) of nucleic acidsabsorbance of 260 nm. 1mg/ml, 1cm pathlength, dsDNA A260=2

21、0; RNA, ss DNA A26025; depended on base composition and secondary structure.Purity of DNApurity of DNA may be estimated by A260/A280 A260/A280 =1.8, pure DNA; A260/A280 1.8, RNA contamination; A260/A280 1.8, protein contamination.,Thermal denaturation (热变性) Denaturation:在某些理化因素作用下,DNA双链解开成两条单链的过程。DN

22、A变性的本质是双链间氢键的断裂。 方法:过量酸,碱,加热,变性试剂如尿素、酰胺以及某些有机溶剂如乙醇、丙酮等。变性后其它理化性质变化: OD260增高,粘度下降,比旋度下降,浮力密度升高,酸碱滴定曲线改变,生物活性丧失。增色效应(hyperchromic effect):DNA变性时其溶液OD260增高的现象。,解链温度(melting temperature, Tm) :变性是在一个相当窄的温度范围内完成,在这一范围内,紫外光吸收值达到最大值的50%时的温度称为DNA的解链温度,又称融解温度。其大小与G+C含量成正比。,Renaturation (复性) DNA复性(renaturation

23、):在适当条件下,变性DNA的两条互补链可恢复天然的双螺旋构象,这一现象称为复性。退火(annealing):热变性的DNA经缓慢冷却后即可复性,这一过程称为退火。减色效应(hypochromic effect):DNA复性时,其溶液OD260降低。,核酸分子杂交(hybridization):在DNA变性后的复性过程中,如果将不同种类的DNA单链分子或RNA分子放在同一溶液中,只要两种单链分子之间存在着一定程度的碱基配对关系,在适宜的条件(温度及离子强度)下,就可以在不同的分子间形成杂化双链,这种杂化双链可以在不同的DNA与DNA之间形成,也可以在DNA和RNA分子间或者RNA与RNA分子间

24、形成。这种现象称为核酸分子杂交。,2.1.4 DNA supercoilingClosed-circular double strand DNA (闭环双链DNA)DNA frequently occurs in nature as closed-circular molecules, where the two single strands are each circular and linked together.Linking number (Lk, 连接数): the number of links (闭环DNA中两条DNA链相互缠绕的总次数),SupercoilingSupercoi

25、ling is the coiling of the DNA axis upon itself, caused by a change in the Lk from Lko, the value for a relaxed closed circle.Most natural DNA is negatively supercoiled, that is the direction of unwinding of the double helix.,Topoisomer (拓扑异构体)A circular dsDNA molecule with a specific value of LK is

26、 a topoisomer. Its LK may not be changed without first breaking one or both strand. Topoisomers differ from each other only in their linking number.,Twist(盘绕) and writhe (螺旋)Twist, the local winding up or unwinding up of the double helix.Writhe, the coiling of helix axis upon itself. Twist and writh

27、e are interconvertible. Lk= T(双螺旋盘绕数) + W(超螺旋数),Intercalators (嵌入剂)EB, ethidium bromide 溴化乙锭Binding to DNA by inserting themselves between the base pairs, resulting in the local untwisting of the DNA helix.If the DNA is closed-circular, there will be a corresponding increase in writhe.,Energy of sup

28、ercoilingSupercoiled DNA has a higher energy than relaxed DNA. torsional stress(扭转应力)higher energy- unwinding of helixTopoisomerases 拓扑异构酶Enzymes exist which regulate the level of supercoiling of DNA molecules; which can break one or both DNA strands and alter the linking number of DNA.,拓扑异构酶:调节DNA超

29、螺旋水平的酶,与DNA形成共价结合蛋白质DNA中间体,在其磷酸二酯键处造成暂时性裂口,使DNA的多核苷酸链穿越改变分子的拓扑状态。,2.2 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic chromosome structure,2.2.1 Prokaryotic chromosome structure2.2.2 Chromatin structure2.2.3 Eukaryotic chromosome structure,2.2.1 Prokaryotic chromosome structureThe E. coli chromosome,A single closed-circ

30、ular DNA 4.6 million base pairs Is packaged in nucleoid (类核) Is being replicated continuously,DNA domains The genome is organized into 50-100 large loops or domains of 50-100kb in length, which are constrained by binding to a membrane-protein complex. Supercoiling of genome Negatively supercoiled In

31、dividual domains support different levels of supercoiling DNA-binding proteins DNA domains are compacted by wraping around nonspecific DNA-binding proteins, which constrain about half of the supercoiling of the DNA.,2.2.2 Chromatin structureEukaryotic chromosomes each contain a long linear DNA, whic

32、h must be packaged into the nucleus.Chromatin (染色质) what?- highly ordered DNA-protein complex which makes up the eukaryotic chromosomes. How? - the chromtin structure serves to package and organize the chromosome DNA, alter level of packing at different stages of the cell cycle.,Histones (组蛋白) what?

33、- major protein components of chromatin; small, basic (positively charged) proteins which bind tightly to DNA. consist?- four families of core histones, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4, and a further family, H1, which have a distinct role. Individual species have a number of varients of differents histone prote

34、ins.,Nucleosome (核小体)- The nucleosome core is the basic unit of chromosome structure, consisting of a protein octamer, (H2A)2, ( H2B)2, ( H3 )2 and ( H4)2, with 146 bp of DNA wrapped 1.8 times in a left-handed fashion around it.,The role of H1 - stabilizes the point at which the DNA enters and leave

35、s the nucleosome core, and organizes the DNA between nucleosomes.- in some cases, H1 is replaced by a varient, H5,Linker DNAThe average length of linker DNA between nucleosome cores is 55 bp, varies between species and tissues from less than 10 and more than 100.The 30nm fiber (纤丝)A left-handed heli

36、x of nucleosomes with six nucleosomes per helical turn.Higher order structure Largest scaleloops of 30 nm fiber,染色体构成的三个层次:核小体,染色质的第一层次。是染色质的基本结构单位。核小体是由组蛋白核心和盘绕其上的DNA构成。核心由组蛋白H2A,H2B,H3及H4各2分子组成,是一个八聚体;DNA在组蛋白核心上盘绕1.8圈,组蛋白H1在核小体外边,结合于连接DNA上,使核小体彼此连接。平均每个核小体重复单位约占DNA200bp。30nm纤丝,染色质的第二层次。念珠串的核小体链进一步

37、折叠盘绕形成30nm染色质纤丝,每一圈为6个核小体,使DNA压缩大约100倍。辐射的环,染色质的第三层次。在念珠串的核小体链进一步折叠盘绕的染色质纤丝组成突环的基础上,再由突环形成玫瑰花结形状的结构,进而组装成螺旋圈,由螺旋圈再组装成染色单体。总之,染色体是由DNA和蛋白质构成的不同层次缠绕线和螺线管结构。,2.2.3 Eukaryotic chromosome structureThe mitotic (有丝分裂) chromosome,Interphase chromosomes (分裂间期染色体),Telomeres (端粒) - Telomeres are specialized DN

38、A sequences that form the ends of the linear DNA molecules of the Eu chromosomes. function: protect the ends of chromosome proper from degradation - short repeating sequences synthesized by telomerase, independently of normal DNA replication.,Euchromatin(常染色质) and Heterochromatin(异)染色质两种类型,一种密度较低,称为

39、常染色质,另一种密度较高,为异染色质,常染色质被表达,异染色质不被表达。Heterochromatin is a portion of the chromatin in interphase which remains relatively compacted and is transcriptionally inactive.染色体是动态的物体,其外观随细胞周期的不同阶段发生明显的改变。一般来说,染色体只有在有丝分裂过程中才能在光学显微镜下观察到,而在分裂间期,染色体以较细且松散的染色质形式存在于细胞核中。,DNase I hypersensitivity ( DNA酶 I超敏感位点)细胞内

40、的染色质分为活性的和非活性的染色质用DNA酶I处理各种组织的染色质时,发现处于活跃状态的基因比非活跃状态的DNA更容易被DNA酶I所降解。研究发现,活跃表达基因所在染色质上一般含有一个或数个DNA酶I超敏感位点(hypersensitive site),它们大多位于基因5端启动区,少数在其他位置。基因活跃表达时启动区部分序列可能解开成单链,从而不能继续缠绕在核小体上,使启动区DNA“裸露”于组蛋白活表面,形成一个对DNA酶I的超敏感现象。,CpG methylation(甲基化) - 5-CG-3 (CpG) sequences in mammalian(哺乳动物) DNA are norma

41、lly methylated on the cytosine base.- however, islands of unmethylated CpG ocuur near the promoters of frequently transcribed genes, and form regions of particularly high DNase I sensitivity.,2.2.4 Genome complexityNoncoding DNAUnique sequence DNATandem gene clusters (串联基因簇)Dispersed repetitive DNA

42、(分散重复DNA)Satellite DNA (卫星DNA)Genetic polymorphism (多态性),根据复性动力学研究,真核细胞DNA大致上可分为3类:(1)不重复序列 在单倍体基因组里,这些序列一般只有一个或几个拷贝,占DNA总量的4080。如牛细胞中占55,小鼠中占70,果蝇中占79。实际上结构基因基本上属于不重复序列。如蛋清蛋白,蚕的丝心蛋白,血红蛋白和珠蛋白等都是单拷贝基因。(2)中度重复序列 重复次数在101104之间,占总DNA的1040,如小鼠中占20,果蝇中15。各种rRNA,tRNA及某些结构基因都属于这一类。(3)高度重复序列卫星DNA。这类DNA只有在真核生

43、物中出现,占基因组的10-60,由60-100个碱基组成,在DNA链上串联重复高达数百万次。,2.2.5 The flow of genetic informationCentral dogma (中心法则),1 基因与基因组的概念基因(gene)是原核、真核生物以及病毒的DNA和RNA分子中具有遗传效应的核苷酸序列,是遗传的基本单位。 基因组(genome)是指细胞或生物体中,一套完整单体的遗传物质的总和;或指原核生物染色体、质粒、真核生物的单倍体染色体组、细胞器、病毒中,所含有的一整套基因。,补充,原核生物的基因组原核生物的染色体基因组是指其环状或线状的双链DNA分子所含有的全部基因,有的

44、原核生物还含有染色体外的质粒基因组。,大肠杆菌 ( E.coli )K12 菌株的染色体基因图谱,真核生物的基因组真核生物的基因组是指真核生物的核基因组,包括:染色体基因组核内染色体外基因组线粒体基因组叶绿体基因组等。,真核生物与原核生物基因组相比,区别如下:基因组大且复杂;不编码区远大于编码区;基因组DNA与蛋白质结合,形成的染色体存在于核内;编码区不连续;重复序列次数不等;以多复制起点的形式复制;转录产物为单顺反子;与原核相同,也存在可移动因子。,2 真核生物的断裂基因断裂基因(split gene):指基因的编码序列在DNA分子上不连续排列,而被不编码的序列所隔开。外显子(exon):编

45、码的序列,是基因中对应于信使RNA的区域。内含子(intron):不编码的间隔序列,是信使RNA被转录后的剪接加工中去除的区域。断裂基因的共性:外显子在基因中与成熟mRNA中排序相同;每种断裂基因在所有组织中都具有相同的内含子成分;核基因的内含子无编码功能;内含子上突变不影响蛋白质结构。,3 重叠基因原核生物的重叠基因1976年Barrell等发现,噬菌体174单链环形DNA的序列组织E包含在D内. 1977年Sanger又发现B包含于A内,K跨于A、C之间 意义:反映了原核生物利用有限的遗传资源表达更多生物功能的能力。真核生物的重叠基因 通常情况下很少有重叠基因。但选择性剪接可导致不同产物产

46、生。,4 基因家族(family)与基因簇(cluster)基因家族是指真核生物基因组中来源相同,结构相似,功能相关的一组基因。广义的基因家族分为两种:一种是家族中各成员的全序列或至少编码序列具有高度的序列同源性。第二种是各成员在编码产物上有大段高度保守的氨基酸序列,但家族成员间总的序列相似性较低。还有一种超基因家族,其各基因序列间没有同源性但其表达产物的功能却相似,他们在整体上有相同的结构特征,如免疫球蛋白家族。基因簇是指基因家族中的各成员紧密成簇排列成大段的串联重复单位,定位于染色体的特殊区域。,5 原核生物的基因组特点1)结构简练:不转录部分很少且常是控制基因表达的序列2)存在转录单元:

47、多顺反子mRNA,这些功能相关的RNA和蛋白质基因协同表达。3)有重叠基因:同一段DNA能携带两种一同的蛋白质信息,主要是:一个基因完全存在于另一个基因内;部分重叠;两个基因只有一个碱基对的重叠。,6 基因与基因组的大小与C值矛盾基因大小取决于它所包含的内含子的长度。C值:指生物单倍体基因组中的DNA含量。C值矛盾:是指真核生物中DNA含量的反常现象。表现:C值不随生物的进化程度和复杂性而增加,如肺鱼111.2,人3.2。亲缘关系密切的生物C值相差很大,如豌豆14,而蚕豆2。高等生物具有比用于遗传高得多的C值,如人300万中仅5-10万基因有实际用途。,C value paradox of n

48、ucleotide,A 生物体进化程度高低 与大C值不成明显 相关(非线性),B 亲缘关系相近的生 物大C值相差较大,C 一种生物内大C值与 小c值相差极大 (Euk. 人体 c = C/10) ( Prok. x174 c C ),真核生物 DNA 染色体数 (2C) (2N)两栖鲵 168.0 pg(10-12g) 24肺鱼 100 38蝾螈 85.3 24警蛙 28.2 24牛 6.4 60人 6.4 46绵羊 5.7 54果蝇 0.2 8贝母 196.7 24豌豆 28 12玉米 11 20,原核生物 DNA (C)Salmonella 0.0143 pgE.coli 0.0040T2

49、 0.00022 0.0000055174 0.000005,无 线 性 关 系 ?,思考题,核苷酸主要由几部分组成?DNA双螺旋结构模型要点?核酸的理化性质主要有哪些?如何通过吸光值判断DNA纯度?解链温度(Tm), 退火,变性,复性,杂交,连接数(LK), topoisomer, topoisomerase,Chromatin, histones, nucleosome, Telomeres,DNase I hypersensitivity,Heterochromatin。 简述大肠杆菌染色体结构。简述真核生物染色质构成的三个层次。真核生物和原核生物基因组主要区别?基因,基因组,断裂基因,

50、重叠基因,外显子,内含子,基因家族,基因簇,C值,C值矛盾原核生物基因组的特点。,3DNA replication,Including,3.1 An overview3.2 Bacterial DNA replication3.3 Eukaryotic DNA replication,3.1 An overview,3.1.1 Semi-conservative mechanism3.1.2 Replicons, origins and termini3.1.3 Semi-discontinuous replication3.1.4 RNA priming,3.1.1 Semi-conserv

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