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1、第9章 失业和通货膨胀,本章要点,2.短期经济波动与周期性失业,3.货币供给与价格水平的关系,5.失业与通货膨胀的短期权衡,1.失业的类型,4.总供求与通货膨胀的关系,一、失业及其原因,1.失业的类型摩擦性失业( Frictional U):从一个工作转换到另一个工作的过渡中产生的失业。结构性失业(Structural U):由于劳动的供给结构与需求结构不相符而产生的失业周期性失业(Cyclical U):由于经济波动而产生的失业。,2.自然失业率(natural rate of unemployment)经济在正常情况下都存在的失业率,主要由摩擦性失业与结构性失业构成,具有长期性质。长期失业
2、率(自然失业率)是由劳动市场特点工作转换率、制度因素、信息状况等 决定的。,一、失业及其原因,The Unemployment Rate and the Natural Rate of Unemployment in the U.S.,3.失业的原因工资粘性 (wage stickiness)最低工资法工会和集体谈判效率工资(efficiency wage) 企业为提高工人生产率而支付的高于市场均 衡水平的工资。,一、失业及其原因,3.失业的原因工资粘性 (wage stickiness)最低工资法工会和集体谈判效率工资(efficiency wage) 企业支付效率工资的原因: 影响劳动力队
3、伍的质量 影响雇员的努力程度 降低雇员的辞职率,一、失业及其原因,3.失业的原因寻找寻找工作与摩擦性失业摩擦性失业的不可避免性 失业保险与摩擦性失业 公共政策与寻找工作,一、失业及其原因,结构性失业经济波动造成的周期性失业 P AS AD Y*,一、失业及其原因,3.失业的原因,4.失业的代价减少产量产量缺口与失业率变化之间存在一定的联系。奥肯定律:失业率下降1,总是伴随着产量增长3,或产量缺口减少3,一、失业及其原因,对收入分配产生不良影响新进入劳动市场的人可能面对极大困难。技术水平低的人更容易受到失业的打击。穷人通常只能依靠劳动谋生,但他们恰恰是最容易失业的人群。,一、失业及其原因,4.失
4、业的代价,二、通货膨胀,1.通货膨胀的定义价格水平在一段时间内持续上升消费者物价指数、GDP 平减指数价格水平上涨的幅度,2.货币与通货膨胀(1)物价水平与货币价值 从物品角度反映物价水平提高:购买同样数量需要更多货币。 从货币角度反映物价水平提高:货币价值下降。,二、通货膨胀,(2)货币价值与货币供求货币需求量与价格水平的关系:价格水平上升,货币需求量增加。货币供给量由中央银行控制,价格水平的调整保证货币供求量相等。 货币供给增加,货币价值下降,物价水平上升,二、通货膨胀,2.货币与通货膨胀,Money Supply, Money Demand, and the Equilibrium Pr
5、ice Level,Copyright 2004 South-Western,Quantity of,Money,Value of,Money,1,/,P,Price,Level,P,0,1,(Low),(High),(High),(Low),1,/,2,1,/,4,3,/,4,1,1.33,2,4,The Effects of Monetary Injection,Copyright 2004 South-Western,Quantity of,Money,Value of,Money,1,/,P,Price,Level,P,0,1,(Low),(High),(High),(Low),1,/
6、,2,1,/,4,3,/,4,1,1.33,2,4,(3)费雪效应 在长期,货币供给量的增加只影响名义利率,不影响实际利率,即名义利率对通货膨胀率作一对一的调整。名义利率(i )和实际利率(r) ri 或 ir,2.货币与通货膨胀,二、通货膨胀,美国的名义利率与通货膨胀率,百分比(每年),1960,1965,1970,1975,1980,1985,1990,1995,2000,0,3,6,9,12,15,Money and Prices During Four Hyperinflations,(a) Austria,(b) Hungary,Money supply,Price level,In
7、dex,(Jan. 1921 = 100),Index,(July 1921 = 100),Price level,100,000,10,000,1,000,100,1925,1924,1923,1922,1921,Money supply,100,000,10,000,1,000,100,1925,1924,1923,1922,1921,Money and Prices During Four Hyperinflations,(c) Germany,1,Index,(Jan. 1921 = 100),(d) Poland,100,000,000,000,000,1,000,000,10,00
8、0,000,000,1,000,000,000,000,100,000,000,10,000,100,Price level,1925,1924,1923,1922,1921,Price level,Index,(Jan. 1921 = 100),100,10,000,000,100,000,1,000,000,10,000,1,000,1925,1924,1923,1922,1921,Annual Inflation Rates in Zimbabwe: 1980-2008,Source: International Monetary Fund,3.总供求与通货膨胀(1)需求拉上的通货膨胀
9、由于总需求不断扩张导致的价格水平持续上涨 总需求扩张可能来自IS曲线方面,也可能来自LM曲线方面。,二、通货膨胀,需求拉上的通货膨胀,P,AD1,AD3,AD2,AS,P1,P2,P3,Y,(2)供给冲击的通货膨胀,成本推进通货膨胀,P,P1,P2,AD,SAS2,SAS1,Y,二、通货膨胀,3.总供求与通货膨胀,4.通货膨胀的社会成本(1)通货膨胀导致购买力下降吗? 长期内 ,通货膨胀并未降低人们的实际购买力。,二、通货膨胀,(2)预期到的通货膨胀的成本皮鞋成本:储户为了减少通货膨胀损失而频繁跑银行所花费的时间和资源 菜单成本:厂商经常调整价格投入的时间和资源 资源配置失误成本 :通货膨胀扭
10、曲产品的相对价格税收扭曲引起的成本 不便引起的成本,二、通货膨胀,4.通货膨胀的社会成本,How Inflation Raises the Tax Burden on Saving,Copyright2004 South-Western,(3)未预期到的通货膨胀的成本任意的财富再分配,二、通货膨胀,4.通货膨胀的社会成本,三、菲利普斯曲线(Phillips Curve),1.菲利普斯曲线的含义最初的菲利普斯曲线表示失业率与货币工资变化率之间的关系。现在通常表示通货膨胀率与失业率之间关系。,The Phillips Curve,Unemployment,Rate (percent),0,Infl
11、ation,Rate,(percent,per year),Copyright 2004 South-Western,How the Phillips Curve is Related to Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply,Quantity,of Output,0,(a) The Model of Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply,Unemployment,Rate (percent),0,Inflation,Rate,(percent,per year),Price,Level,(b) The Philli
12、ps Curve,Copyright 2004 South-Western,2.长期菲利普斯曲线 长期总供给曲线与价格无关 长期菲利普斯曲线是一条位于自然失业率水平的垂直线 长期菲利普斯曲线与长期总供给曲线是同一枚硬币的两面,三、菲利普斯曲线(Phillips Curve),The Long-Run Phillips Curve,Unemployment,Rate,0,Natural rate of,unemployment,Inflation,Rate,Long-run,Phillips curve,Copyright 2004 South-Western,How the Phillips
13、Curve is Related to Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply,Quantity,of Output,Natural rate,of output,Natural rate of,unemployment,0,Price,Level,AD1,LRAS,LRAS,(a) The Model of Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply,Unemployment,Rate,0,Inflation,Rate,(b) The Phillips Curve,Copyright 2004 South-Western,对
14、通货膨胀预期的调整把短期与长期菲利普斯曲线联系起来。弗里德曼和费尔普斯引入预期通胀率后的菲利普斯曲线:,3.预期与短期菲利普斯曲线的移动,三、菲利普斯曲线(Phillips Curve),How Expected Inflation Shifts the Short-Run Phillips Curve,Unemployment,Rate,0,Natural rate of,unemployment,Inflation,Rate,Long-run,Phillips curve,Copyright 2004 South-Western,重要结论:决策者面临着通货膨胀和失业的交替关系,但只是暂时的
15、。如果决策者利用这种交替关系,这种交替关系就不存在了。,三、菲利普斯曲线(Phillips Curve),3.预期与短期菲利普斯曲线的移动,4.供给冲击与菲利普斯曲线移动 AS曲线的不利移动(AS下降)使菲利普斯曲线向右上方移动:同样的失业率对应更高的通胀率。,三、菲利普斯曲线(Phillips Curve),An Adverse Shock to Aggregate Supply,Quantity,of Output,0,Price,Level,AD,(a) The Model of Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply,Unemployment,Rat
16、e,0,Inflation,Rate,(b) The Phillips Curve,AS,P,C1,Copyright 2004 South-Western,5.降低通胀的代价牺牲率(the sacrifice ratio) 紧缩的货币或财政政策为使通货膨胀率降低1%而导 致的产量损失的百分比。 牺牲率的大小取决于菲利普斯曲线的斜率、通胀预 期对新货币、财政政策的调整速度。,三、菲利普斯曲线(Phillips Curve),Disinflationary Monetary Policy in the Short Run and the Long Run,Unemployment,Rate,0,
17、Natural rate of,unemployment,Inflation,Rate,Long-run,Phillips curve,Copyright 2004 South-Western,理性预期与反通胀 理性预期(rational expectation) 人们利用一切可能利用的信息对未来所形成 的预期。如果人们的预期是理性的,反通货膨胀 就没有代价。,三、菲利普斯曲线(Phillips Curve),5.降低通胀的代价,The Phillips Curve in the 1960s (U.S.),1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,0,2,4,6,8,10,Unemployme
18、nt,Rate (percent),Inflation Rate,(percent per year),Copyright 2004 South-Western,The Breakdown of the Phillips Curve (U.S.),1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,0,2,4,6,8,10,Unemployment,Rate (percent),Inflation Rate,(percent per year),Copyright 2004 South-Western,The Supply Shocks of the 1970s (U.S.),1,2,3,4,5,6,7
19、,8,9,10,0,2,4,6,8,10,Unemployment,Rate (percent),Inflation Rate,(percent per year),Copyright 2004 South-Western,The Volcker Disinflation,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,0,2,4,6,8,10,Unemployment,Rate (percent),Inflation Rate,(percent per year),Copyright 2004 South-Western,The Greenspan Era,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,0,2,4,6,8,10,Unemployment,Rate (percent),Inflation Rate,(percent per year),Copyright 2004 South-Western,