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1、Psycholinguistics,The Brain Is Wider Than The SkyEmily Dickinson,大脑比天空辽阔，因为，把它们放在一起，前者能轻松地包容后者，还有你。大脑比海洋更深，因为，把它们比一比，蓝对蓝前者能吸收后者，像吊桶，也像海绵。大脑和上帝重量一致，因为，把它们称一称，磅对磅，它们，如果有区别，就像音乐不同于音响。,The brain is wider than the sky,For put them side by side,The one the other will includeWith ease, and you beside.The b
2、rain is deeper than the sky,For, hold them blue to blue,The one the other will absorbAs sponges, buckets do.The brain is just the weight of God,For lift them, pound for pound,And they will differ, if they do,As syllable from sound.,1.General Introduction,DefinitionCurrent issues of psycholinguistics
3、,PsycholinguisticsThe psychology of Language,Objective of psycholinguistics,The basic objective of psycholinguistics is to understand how the human mind/brain supports the learning, comprehension, and production of language. Understanding the whole process of language acquisition and stages of lingu
4、istic developmentUnderstanding the process of language production and language comprehensionGetting a rough idea of the language lossStarting doing some simple researches in psycholinguistics,The research scope of psycholinguistics,语言过程和语言学知识心理语言学研究包括两个核心问题：1、使用语言需要什么语言知识？意会知识：如何实施各种行动的知识。外显知识：在这些行动
5、中所使用的过程或者机制方面的知识。语言知识的四大领域：语义学、句法学、音位学、语用学2、日常语言的使用牵涉到什么认知过程？认知过程指知觉、记忆和思维之类的过程。,Subjects,Normal childrenNormal adultsAphasics,儿童语言一个一岁左右的小孩如何与其母亲交流？通常情况下，此年龄的儿童每次只能讲出仅仅一个词语。作为语言使用的入门者，小孩也许懂得了恰当使用语言的一些规则，至少是讲不出来而内心明白。另外小孩的语言中没有封闭词（如介词、连词等），而偏爱开放词（如名词、动词、形容词），这种现象表明，小孩对这两种语法类别已有直观理解。,失语症患者的言语失语症是脑损伤所
6、致的语言障碍。如韦尼克失语症是患者由于脑损伤而导致语义知识受损。例：(4)Before I was in the one here,I was over in the other one.My sister had the department in the other one.患者的音位知识没有受到损害，尽管语义不通，其发音流利清晰，停顿适当，语调准确。,Contents,Language comprehensionLanguage productionLanguage acquisition (Chapter 14 SLA)Researches,2.Language comprehensi
7、on,2.1 Word recognitionFrequency Effects Recency EffectsContext Semantic Association Network 2.2 Lexical ambiguity2.3 Syntactic processing Garden Path: Garden Path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. It typically takes quite a lo
8、ng time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice turns out to be incorrect. Sometimes people never figure it out. They have been “led up the garden path,” fooled into thinking the sentence has a different structure than it has.2.4 Semantic and sentence memory2.5 Basic processes
9、in reading,词汇识别,听觉词汇识别(spoken word recognition)视觉词汇识别(visual word recognition),Some theories,视觉词汇识别直通理论(direct-access hypothesis)：词的意义可直接由词形信息获得，语音的提取是词义通达后的附加过程(Taft, 1998)。语音中介理论(phonology mediation hypothesis)：词义的获得需要先把词形信息转换成语音，由语音激活词的意义，因此语音信息起到一种重要的中介作用(Berent & Perfetti, 1995)。双通道理论(dual-acce
10、ss hypothesis)：词形通达词义和由词形通达语音再通达词义的两条通路同时存在，哪条通路起作用取决于词的频率和类型等因素(Coltheart, 1978, 1980)。,Some factors on word recognition,Frequency Effects Recency EffectsProficiencyAgeGrammarContext Semantic Association Network,Schemata,Schemata refer to the meaning packets of stored knowledge. The features of sch
11、emata are as follows:Schemata can vary considerably in the information they contain, from the very simple to the very complex.Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically.Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptually driven way to facilitate interpretation of environmental stimuli.,语句和篇章理解,语句理解
12、是在字词理解的基础上，通过对句子的句法、语义以及语境的分析，达到语义理解的过程。言语交谈中充满着大量的歧义句，如“They are eating apples”，只有借助语境，我们才能够明白这句话表达的含义是“这是可以吃的苹果”还是“他们正在吃苹果”。研究者们大都认同语法、语义、语用等知识在正确地理解一个句子时的重要作用。不同的研究者在这些信息起作用的时间点，句法信息和语义、语用信息加工的关系上存在不同的看法。一个关键问题是句法知识首先被加工，还是句法、语义和语用知识同时起作用。,Theories,模块化理论在句子加工中，句法和语义信息由大脑不同功能性模块或加工器完成。来自词汇加工器的信息同时
13、流向句法加工器和语义加工器，由它们分别加工自下而上输入的句子和语义信息。句法分析和语义分析相互之间不影响。Frazier等人（1978，1982）提出的“花园路径模型”（the garden path model）是典型代表。花园路径理论假设，最初的句法分析独立于并早于任何的语义加工。在句子加工早期，句法分析模块首先对句子进行结构分析，然后语义分析模块决定该结构是否有意义。如果语义分析否定句法分析的结果，句法分析模块再一次进行分析，提出另一种句子的结构。交互作用理论在句子理解过程中句法和语义信息交互作用。代表模型是MacDonald和Tanenhaus(1995)提出的制约模型(constra
14、int-satisfaction model)。制约模型认为，在对句子进行语法分析的最初阶段，我们就会同时利用所有可以获得的信息，包括句法的、词汇的、语篇的还有非语言信息和情景信息。,Technologies,主要的实验技术和手段包括(余林等, 1999)：移动视窗(moving window)技术：通过计算机逐词或多词呈现的方式进行，被试通过按键使计算机屏幕逐词或多词呈现实验材料，阅读的速度由被试的按键速度所决定，因而又称自定步速的阅读。被试按键时由计算机自动记录下他在各词上的停留时间，以此作为阅读时间来研究被试在阅读加工过程中所遇到的加工困难。跨通道启动(cross-model primi
15、ng)技术：一般是通过耳机听觉呈现刺激材料，然后在句子不同位置由计算机屏幕呈现启动词，并让被试对启动词进行词汇判断或命名，视觉启动词的呈现位置和时间由计算机精确控制，并由其记录下被试对探测词的反应时间和错误率，以此来研究探测词受到句子加工中语义和句法关系制约的情况。眼动技术(eye-movement technique)：此技术通过专门的眼动仪(eye tracker)来追踪被试在屏幕上的注视点，实验材料由计算机呈现，并通过眼动仪与计算机的连接记录被试在句中各词上的停留时间和回扫、眼跳等资料，通过分析被试在各种控制条件下行为反应上的差异来了解被试的即时加工过程，此种方法接近于自然条件下的阅读状
16、况。事件相关电位（event-related potentials）：通过计算机收集和处理大脑加工句子信息时的脑电活动的方法，直接探测人在阅读过程中所引起的脑电变化，以此获得人在加工不同控制条件下句子时的脑电模式来推测句子加工的时间进程。在句子加工中发现了两种相对稳定的脑电波N400与P600。前者是指句中关键词呈现400毫秒后所记录到的一个负的脑电波，它与词汇的语义 (特别是主题限制)有关；后者是指在关键词呈现600毫秒后记录到的一个正的脑电波，研究认为它与句子的句法有关。,What we hear is influenced by psycholinguistic variables an
17、d is not just the accurate perception of the sequence of sounds or words that hit our ears.言语理解的过程是积极主动地运用自己所掌握的背景知识,激活与所听材料有关的图式,进行辨音、理解、联想、猜测和推断等智力活动。,Top-down Versus Bottom-up,Bottom-up：driven solely by input, raw, sensory data (自下而上)Top-down: Is guided by a persons knowledge, expectation or beli
18、ef（自上而下）. It emphasize how higher-order conceptual information in memory (world knowledge, context, discourse structure) guides the reading at lower levels (letters, syllables, words),Perception of speech segments,(1) Components of speech(2) Speech synthesis(3) Vowel identification(4) Consonant iden
19、tification(5)Parallel transmission(6) Context variation(7) Voice onset time(8) Categorical perception(9) Phoneme prototypes,The reading processes (Grabe, 1991,1999),(1) automatic recognition skills(2) vocabulary and structural knowledge(3) formal discourse structure knowledge(4) content/world backgr
20、ound knowledge(5) synthesis and evaluation skills/strategies (6) metacognition knowledge and skills monitoring,3.Language production,3.1 Speech productionThe message level representationThe functional-level representationThe positional-level representationThe phonetic-level representationThe articul
21、atory-level representation3.2 Written languageThe planning processThe sentence generation processThe revision process,Research in Language production,Instruments: speech errors, hesitations, and pausing phenomenaHow do we select the right words and create a sentence framework for them?How are gestur
22、es integrated into spoken messages?Can a language-delayed child catch up later?How are our emotional states encoded in speech?,Ex.,Lexical decision task: to decide if a string of letters is word or notExperiment: What factors affect word recognition and reading process?,Oral production,How do we con
23、ceptualize what we are going to say?How do we find the right words to express our conceptualizations?What are the units or building blocks of speech productions?What are the stages of assembling speech units?What kinds of errors do people make while speaking, and what do the errors tell us about the
24、 speech production?What factors affect speech production, such as speech rate and pausing?How are gestures and emotions integrated into the speech stream?What models have been proposed to account for the data?,Levelts Psychological models,Speech phenomena are a step-by-step sequential process Concep
25、tualization信息概念化Formulation构想计划Articulation执行计划Self-monitoring错误自我监控,Conceptualization of an intended message,Linguistic concepts are formed as two concurrent and parallel models of thought. (McNeill)Syntactic thinking imagistic thinking verbal non-verbal 生成一串音节，单词，短语和句子 采用手势阐释,sequence of words,hol
26、istic and visual model of communication,Formulation of a linguistic plan,Identifying the meaningSelecting a syntactic structureGenerating an intonation contour (shape),Formulation of a linguistic plan,Finding words: finding the right content words, the right function words, and also the appropriate
27、prefixes and suffixes in languages that have inflections.Not finding a word: The tip-of-tongue phenomenon,Formulation of a linguistic plan,Examples: slips of tongue, pen, or computer keyboardPhenomenon: Garden path花园小径Mechanism: priming启动正如人们阅读或听到的那样，语言是在线处理的,Garden Path,Garden Path sentences are se
28、ntences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. It typically takes quite a long time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice turns out to be incorrect. Sometimes people never figure it out. They have been “led up the garden path,” fool
29、ed into thinking the sentence has a different structure than it has.,Ex.,下雨天留客天留人不留Would you hit a woman with a baby? “No Id hit her with a brick.“ (E.E.Cummings),Slips of tongue,Spoonerism: a actual word or phrase is created, often with a humorous twist to the meaning which was intended.,汉语口误实例,一同学
30、在下面闹，我们老师说：“你给我站到黑板上面去！”高难度啊。两个人斗嘴，突然旁边一人冒出来一句：“你们真是吃饱了事情没饭做啊！” 某君考驾驶证那天，特别紧张。考官为难他，叫他在路边有一个消防栓的地方停车。此君特紧张的说：“报告消防栓，路边有一个考官，停不了车！” 有一老师通宵麻将，见黑板没擦，大怒：“今天谁做庄啊？黑板都不擦！” 有一同事，有天我开车在路上车胎没气了，问哪里有充气的，同事说：“街上到处都是打胎的啊！”,Phoneme errors,Phoneme deletions: speech peachPhoneme exchange: bird watcher word botcher
31、Phoneme cluster exchange: stick in the mud smuck in the tid,Syllable errors,Syllable exchanges involve the same syllabic positions within the affected words; that is, a word-initial segment swaps with another word-initial segment, and a word-final segment swaps with another word-final segment. Merri
32、ll and Fenner Merrer and FennillSyllable blends: shout+yell shell,Word and morpheme errors,tank of gas gas of tankLighter for every purse purse for every lighterEasily enough easy enoughlyTheres a good likelihood theres a good likeness,Writing processes,The composition process relies on a pool of me
33、ntal and physical resources; it requires a medium for production (handwriting or typing), the conventions of the medium (font, punctuation, and symbols), and a composition plan for laying out the text in the appropriate format.,The Flower and Hayes model,Writing is viewed as a form of problem solvin
34、g that has three major features: a task environment, a long-term memory component, and a working memory component. These three components become interactive when writers compose text.,The Flower and Hayes model,Task environment (1) The writing assignment: topic, audience, motivating cues (2) Externa
35、l storage: text format (handwriting notes or draft); other resources,The Flower and Hayes model,Long-term memory(1) knowledge about the topic(2) knowledge of audience(3) stored writing plans,The Flower and Hayes model,Working memory (1) planning: goal setting (2) generating text (3) revising and rev
36、iewing,Some conclusions on individual differences in writing,Analyzing the writing taskGenerating ideasIncorporating documentationOrganizingRevisingEmploying writing strategiesReading and writing,Some knowledge and issues,Historical developmentBrain structures and language,早期心理语言学,代表人物：冯特（Wilhelm Wu
37、ndt） （1832-1920）冯特坚信研究语言可以深入探讨人的心智的本质。贡献：语言产生理论。 他认为，语言的基本单位是句子，而不是词，将言语产生看作是完整的思维转换为有组织的线形语段的过程（语言理解视为正好相反的类似过程）。,行为主义：流行于20世纪20年代 （1）反对将心智活动作为心理学研究中心，乐于研究客观行为，研究对象通常为实验室中的动物。（2）强烈信奉经验在行为塑造中的作用。（3）强调环境因素的影响。,行为主义和言语行为,开始于20世纪50年代初代表人物：乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）对斯金纳及其他行为主义语言学习理论进行系统批判。 A.批判行为主义者的联想链说理论。联想链说
38、主张句子中多个词语构成联结链组成句子，句子中每个词语是下一词语的刺激物，因而整个句子是从左到右产生的。,近期的心理语言学,B、用刺激贫乏论批判语言习得不能以儿童的语言经验来解释。该理论指出，提供给儿童的语言样例信息不足以解释儿童语言的丰富性和复杂性。例如：,Chomsky的主张如下： 儿童语言发展过程中提供给他们的语言样例绝对不会如此复杂精妙。因此，尽管父母可能对儿童语言发展提供某些方面的帮助，一定程度影响语言发展的速度，但是，儿童语言发展的模式不是基于父母的言语，而是基于内在的语言知识。,（1）本领域跨学科性质更加明显。（2）乔姆斯基语言学革命后心理学的研究兴趣集中于句法研究的浪潮已经激起关
39、于语言的其他方面的研究兴趣。（3）心理语言学如何看待儿童语言习得。儿童语言环境研究的复苏对内在语言机制的研究形成补充。,当今的发展方向,脑结构和语言,失语症的临床描述1、布罗卡失语症（又名表达性失语症） 症状：由法国外科医生Broca发现，并以他的名字命名。产生语言的能力较理解语言的能力受损较大，病人说话费力，犹豫、不流畅。每个词的发音明显地需要作出很大努力，词的产生很慢，而且在它们之间有停顿，音素失真和发音困难等是很普遍的现象。表达时一次只能用一个单词来表达自己的意思的个体。语言中一般很好地保存了实词（名词、动词等），但常省略虚词（如冠词、连词等）。,以下是戈德拉斯所描述的一个失语症病人对别
40、人问话的反应： 是啊星期一啊爸爸和彼得霍根，和爸爸啊医院和啊星期三星期三，九点钟和啊星期四十点啊医生二二一个医生和牙齿呦和一个医生一个女孩和口香糖，和我。病因：布罗卡认为这种失语症定位于左脑额下回，以后称为布罗卡回的部位，他认为这个区域对言语的产生至关重要，这个区域也叫布罗卡区。,下图表示脑半球的一些主要功能区域，这是左半球的图。视觉中心位于脑的后部，称为枕叶。听觉区在脑的侧面，称为颞叶。控制面部和言语肌肉的运动中心位于脑的中部区域，称为顶叶。调节我们触觉的躯体感觉区，也位于顶叶，在运动区后面。 上图为皮层上基本运动和感觉区的部位；M=运动，S=躯体感觉，V=视觉，A=听觉。,下图表示与语言功
41、能有特定关系的某些脑区。布罗卡区临近运动皮层和部分额叶，额叶和思维、推理、判断和创新这样一些过程密切相关。韦尼克区是接近听觉皮层的左颞叶上的一个区域。上图为皮层上主要语言区的定位。B=布罗卡区，W=韦尼克区，AG=角回。,2、韦尼克失语症（又称接受性失语症）症状：言语流畅但没什么信息价值。这种言语被认为是语法异常言语。例： 这是妈妈不在这里做她的工作让她好些，但是当她看的时候，两个男孩看另外部分。一个他们小的瓷砖到这里她这一次，她另外时间在工作因为她也赚钱。 理解方面也存在问题，包括句子和/或语篇等 水平的加工缺陷。病因：接近听觉皮层的左颞叶上的一个区域受到损伤而引起的，这个区域现在成为韦尼克区域。,失读症视觉区和语言区分离。最严重的甚至会阻碍字母的认识或手写体和印刷体的匹配。角回的损伤也会同时产生失写症。 左图为失读但没有失写的失语 症病人的大脑损伤模式。,
