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1、Lexicology词汇学,Lexicology,A branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. Aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures (形态结构) of words, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.,Relation with other disciplines,Mor
2、phology 形态学（structure）Semantics 语义学 （meaning）Etymology 词源学 （origin and historical development）stylistics 文体学 （style）Lexicography 词典编纂学 （dictionary） Lexicology embraces all the above.,主要内容,英语词汇学是一门以当代语言学多种理论为指导，全面深入研究英语词汇的专业课程。课程的主要内容包括：词汇学习和研究的基本概念、英语词汇的来源和发展演变、构词方法、词义的变化、词义关系、英语成语等。,Chapter One,A G
3、eneral Survey of English Vocabulary英语词汇概述,Key points,1. word: definition2. Development of English Vocabulary (history)3. Classification of English Words,Word,Word 与字？Definition：the two often quoted definitions from Bloomfield布洛姆菲尔德（美国语言学家教育家） and a French linguist, Antoine Meillet（梅耶，法国语言学家）,Bloomfi
4、eld,“some linguistic forms（语言形态）, which we call bound forms(限定/非自由形态) are never used as sentences.,Bound forms: as part of a larger forme.g. boyish / childishFree forms: occur as sentencese.g. Fire!/ Help!/ Poor John/ John ran away.,A word is a free form which does not consist entirely of (two or mo
5、re) lesser free forms. In belief, a word is a minimum free form.” (p. 1, para. 2)This definition emphasizes syntax(句法)， but does not touch upon meaning.,Antoine Meillet,“A word is defined by the association of a given sense with a given group of sounds capable of a given grammatical use.” (p.2, para
6、.2 ),Main criteria（标准） of a word:Sound, meaning and syntactic function （音、义、形）,Definition,a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning capable of performing a given syntactic function.（p. 2. para.4）言语的基本单位和最小自由形态；它是声音和意义的结合体，能发挥一定的句法功能。Words are either spok
7、en or written.(口头和书面),An Example,The young man left quietly. Sound:Meaning: Syntactic function(句法功能): part of speech(词性)The: article冠词 young: adj. 形容词Man：n. 名词 left：v. 动词 quietly: adv副词,1. The development of English Vocabulary,英语词汇的发展,Vocabulary,All the words in a language： （p.3）The building materia
8、ls of a language.Important to have some knowledge of its development and growth.,A: Historical perspective历史的角度,Development of English and its vocabulary: 1. Old English古英语/ Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁撒克逊 （449-1100）England： Celtic（凯尔特语）/ 450AD，invaded by Angles盎格鲁, Saxons撒克逊, Jutes朱特人,Vocabulary： 5000-6000 words
9、，chiefly Anglo-Saxon/ some Old Norse古斯堪的那维亚语 Old Norse words (are, they, their, them, till, call, die, give, take, skin, window, ill, weak)Latin words: Roman contact (bargain, cheap, inch, pound, cup, dish, wall, wine)Christianity基督教: abbot (修道院院长)altar圣坛 candle，temple,Middle English（1100-1500）,Tran
10、sitional过度的：French InfluenceNorman Conquest in 1066 诺曼底征服English for the mass and French for the rulers,Vocabulary: Loss of a large part of Old English wordsAdoption of French words: Law and government: (judge, justice, state)Military: (conquer, victory)Religion: (confess, divine, sermon布道),clothing
11、: (coat, dress, gown, robe)Food: (beef, pork, dinner)Art: (beauty, image)Literature: (chapter, poet, prose)Science: (medicine, remedy, surgeon)The core of the language: Still English,Modern English(1500-present),1. Renaissance: the study of the classicsLatin loan words science and abstract ideas (fu
12、nction, education, exist, scientific)Greek words: literary, technical and scientific words: (drama, comedy, tragedy, physics),French: caf, attach(专员)Spanish： cigar, vanilla， cocoaItalian： concert, piano, solo, piazza. Portuguese葡萄牙语: caste种姓制度， pagoda 宝塔German：zinc锌 Dutch：dock Russian： vodka, tsar沙皇
13、,2. Exploration, colonization and trade- borrow from non-European languageAustralian： kangarooArabic： sugar， alcoholIndian： coolie, khaki Hebrew希伯来语: Chinese： yamenJapanese: tycoonAfrican: zebra, gorilla,Summary,The English language has vast debts.80% words are borrowed.Latin, French, Greek, Scandin
14、avian languagesPortuguese, Italian, Spanish, Dutch.Other languages of the world.,Result: 1. Vocabulary extremely rich and heterogeneous 多样化的 （one million words）2. synonyms and idioms,B: rapid growth of present-day English Vocabulary and Its causes,Neologisms(新词) after World War IIReasons：1. progress
15、 of science and technology科技2. socio-economic, political and cultural changes 社会经济、政治和文化3. the influence of other cultures and languages其他文化和语言的影响,Marked progress of science and technology,Examples:1. Nuclear bombs: chain reaction连所犯反应, overkill过度杀伤, medium-range ballistic missiles 中程弹道导弹2. Explorat
16、ion of Space: astronaut, countdown, spaceman, space shuttle3. computer science: software, hardware, input, output, memory, monitor, data base,2. Socio-economic, political and cultural changes,A. new social habits and new living conditions: hire purchase(租购)， credit cardB. Domestic habits: chores杂事,
17、house sitter代为看管房屋的人 , house sitting, supermarketC. Drug addiction药物成瘾: acid head瘾君子D. Student unrest: be-in(社交集会) love-in谈情说爱的集会gay/ homophile,E. internal political struggle in the US: Sit-in 静坐 swim-in 游泳抗议 teach-in 宣讲会；座谈会（大学校园中就有争议的或重要的问题发表意见进行讨论）F: Womens liberation movement: Ms, Chairperson, c
18、hairwoman, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, sexism性别歧视,G. Struggle of the black people: black studies黑人研究 black power黑人权利H. changes in Education: open classroom, open university, I. New Entertainment: call-in电话交谈节目J. Sports: skydiving 跳伞运动,3. The influence of other cultures and languages,Discotheq
19、ue迪斯科舞厅 Mao tai,Summary,The development of sciencethe rapid changes in societyThe receptive and flexible nature of EnglishResulted in a dramatic increase in vocabulary.,2. Classification of English Words,英语单词的分类,Three criteria 三个标准,1. by origin 起源2. by level of usage 使用的等级3. by notion 概念功能,By origin
20、: native words and loan words,Native words本族词:Words of Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁-撒克逊 origin or of Old EnglishLoan words外来词(borrowed words): words borrowed from other languagesNaturalized or used as they are in the original language. (p. 9),Native words,Most are monosyllabic (单音节的)The great majority of the basi
21、c word stock: basic word stock基本词库: foundation of the vocabularyAuxiliary and modal verbs: 情态动词Numerals数词，pronoun代词，preposition介词，conjunctions连词(p.10, para.2),Fundamental features of the basic word stock,1. national character: 全国性2. stability 稳定性（relatively）3. word-forming ability: 构词能力4. ability to
22、 form collocations: 与其他词搭配的能力,Questions,1.Are there more native words or more loan words in English?2. which are used more frequently in everyday speech and writing?By origin, English words can be classified into_.,By level of usage使用的等级,1. Common words常用词汇: （p.11）words connected with the ordinary t
23、hings or activities necessary to everyday life.The great majority of English words are common words. The core of the common words is the basic word stock. Appropriate in formal and informal writing and speech.,2. Literary words书面词: chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more eleva
24、ted style, in official documents or in formal speeches. comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation. Examples: p. 12Foresee, outline vs. visualize, adumbrateFatigued, retired vs. tired, went to bed,In English, most of the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin. Everyday synonyms:
25、 P. 12 for examples:,Among the literary words, two categories are noteworthy:,Archaic words: 古体词 words no longer in common use, although retained for special purpose. (They are sometimes employed in poetry, business letters, etc.),Examples,Abed-in bed; behold-see; belike-probably; natheless-neverthe
26、less; perchance-by chance. Archaic word are marked as “arch” different from obsolete（废弃的） words. Obsolete words are those completely out of current use. Marked “obl, dated”,Poetical words: 诗歌词语Poetical words are words that are traditionally used only in poetry. Array-outfit; the deep-the sea; stead-
27、horse; morn-morning;Some words are both poetic and archaic: p.13 for examples.,3. Colloquial words口语词: used mainly in spoken English, as in conversation among friends and colleagues. They can also be used in informal writings,Examples,Feeling fatigued, Tom retired early. (Literary)Tom felt so dog-ti
28、red he hit the sack early. (Colloquial)John was dismissed for petty thieving. (Common)John was fired for petty thieving. ( Colloquial ),Slang words: 俚语词language, words or phrases of a vigorous, colourful, facetious滑稽的, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the un
29、conventional use of the standard vocabulary.”,Colloquial vs. slang,Some overlapColloquial: not to be used on formal occasionsSlang: not used in informal conversations, unless the speakers are on intimate terms.,The chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is to secure freshness an
30、d novelty. Buzz- telephone callKnockout-给人留下深刻印象的人；绝代佳人 Nuthouse精神病院To play hooky逃学,Technical words: 专业术语words used in various special fields. Every branch of science, every profession or trade, art, and every sort of sports has its own technical terms.,Summary,Since language is constantly changing,
31、 the classification of words by level of usage is not absolute.,Question,By level of usage, English vocabulary can be classified into _.A. common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words and technical words.B. native words and loan wordsC. function words and content wordsD. original word
32、s and derivational words,By notion意念: function words and content words,Function words: 虚词often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries助动词, and so forth. They do not have much lexical meaning词汇意义 and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own;,They have
33、grammatical meaning. 语法意义. They belong to a relatively small and permanent set of words. The total number of function words is about 154.,Content words: 实词Words used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning.Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adver
34、bsContent words belong to an open list.,Summary,Function words: small in number, closed list, most frequently usedContent words: large in number, open list, low frequency of occurrence.,Chapter summary,Word: Historical development of English vocabularyClassification of English words,Chapter II,Morph
35、ological structure of English words 英语词汇的形态结构,1. Morphemes,词素/语素,Word,a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning) capable of performing a given syntactic function,A. Basic information：,1. The morpheme is the smallest
36、meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. Example: denationalization民营化（word）-de+nation+al+iz+action （five morphemes）A word may be analysable into one or more morphemes.,A morpheme is also a two-facet language unit which possesses both sound and meaning.
37、 Different from a phoneme: 音素-k /k/,u/ju:/ a/ei, i/ai/A book, I love him.,A morpheme is not identical (同一的) with a syllable (音节), either, since the latter has nothing to do with meaning. Boy, child-one syllable, one morpheme.lady- two syllables, one morpheme.Crocodile- three syllables, one morpheme.
38、,B. Allomorphs,语素变体/同词素的异形词 An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sound. Examples:S in Books/s/, pigs/z/, horses/iz/,Suffix: 后缀-ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation Invent- inventionDescribe-descriptionJustify-justification, modernize-modernizationExpand
39、expansion, decide-decision,refix前缀：im-/ir-/il-/in-im-imperfect, impossible, imbalance, immobileir-irresponsible, irregularil- illogicalin inflexible, inexcusable,2. Classification of morphemes,词素的分类,A: free and bound,Free Morpheme自由语素: is one that can be uttered 说,讲alone with meaning. It can exist o
40、n its own without a bound morpheme(限定语素/粘着语素). A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. E.g. man, faith, read, write, red,Bound Morpheme限定语素: cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.E.g: un-unkind; -ly-happily; re-rec
41、eive; s-dogs; exboxes; ed-worked.,B. Roots and Affixes,morphemes may be divided into roots词根 (or root morphemes根词素) and affixes词缀 (or affixational morphemes 词缀语素）,Roots词根,A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. E.g. work, workable, worker
42、, worked, workingRoots are the cores of English words. Historically the root is the earliest form of a word. Root are either free or bound.,Free roots自由词根,In English, many roots are free morphemes. E.g. boy, moon, walk, blackFree roots belong to the basic word-stock基本词库, and have the fundamental fea
43、tures of the basic word-stock. A free root consists one morpheme.,Bound roots限定词根,They are not words, and so are not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own. Nor can they be used to form new words. P.24tain- contain, detain, retainceive- receive, deceive, conceive,Summary,A root, free or boun
44、d, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.ReviveVitaminVitalvivid,Affixes词缀,An affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词要素) that can be used only when added to another morpheme. P.25,Affixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes. They may be divided into inflec
45、tional（曲折变化） and derivational （派生）types. P.25,Inflectional Affixes曲折变化词缀,An inflectional affix serves to express such meaning as plurality复数, tense时态, and the comparative比较 or superlative degree最高级.,Inflectional affix does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word
46、. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. The number of inflectional affixes is small and fixed; They have only their particular grammatical meaning.,Plural 复数: -s- es- Genitive case属格： TomsThird person singular present tense第三人称单数: worksPresent participle现在分词: -ingPast
47、 tense and past participle: -ed dComparative: slowerSuperlative: fastest,Derivational affixes派生词缀,When they are added to another morpheme, they derived a new word. Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning词汇意义; or more than one meaning. E.g. p. 25,Derivational affixes have not only i
48、ndependent lexical meaning but also affective meaning情感色彩. mis-/ mal-/There are also derivational affixes which can be attached to words of different word-classes. v./ n. +able washable/ marriageable,The number of derivational affixes, although limited, is much larger than that of inflectional affix
49、es. commonly subdivided into prefixes前缀 and suffixes后缀:Prefixes: affixes before the word are called prefixes. Suffixes: affixes after the word are called suffixes.,Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to: Their linguistic origin: Native affixes (are those that existed in English in th
50、e OE period or were formed form OE words.) and Foreign affixes (came as a part of loan words from foreign languages.),Hybrid混合词,: Most foreign prefixes and suffixes have long since become naturalized in English, and many words have been formed form elements of mixed origins. Examples： p.27,Their pro
