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1、Quantitative Analysis定量分析,Quantitative Analysis定量分析,Chapter 12Gravimetric Methods of Analysis,Chapter 12Gravimetric Methods,Gravimetric methods of analysis are based on the measurement of mass. There are two major types of gravimetric methods: Precipitation methods: in this method the analyte is con
2、verted to a sparingly soluble precipitate. This precipitate is then filtered, washed free of impurities, and converted to a product of known composition by suitable heat treatment, and the product is weighed.Volatilization methods: in this the analyte or its decomposition products are volatilized at
3、 a suitable temperature. The volatile product is then collected and weighed, or, alternatively, the mass of the product is determined indirectly from the loss in mass of the sample.,Gravimetric methods of analys,定量分析12重量分析法GravimetricMethodsofAnalysis课件,PROPERTIES OF PRECIPITATES AND PRECIPITATING R
4、EAGENTS,A gravimetric precipitating agent should react specifically, and selectively with the analyte. The ideal precipitating reagent would react with the analyte to give a product that is Readily filtered and washed free of contaminantsOf sufficiently low solubility so that no significant loss of
5、the solid occurs during filtration and washingUnreactive with constituents of the atmosphereOf known composition after it is dried or, if necessary, ignited,PROPERTIES OF PRECIPITATES AND,Particle Size and Filterability of PrecipitatesPrecipitates made up of large particles are generally desirable i
6、n gravimetric work because large particles are easy to filter and wash free of impurities. In addition, such precipitates are usually purer than are precipitates made up of fine particles.,Particle Size and Filterabili,What Factors Determine Particle Size? The particle size of solids formed by preci
7、pitation varies enormously. At one extreme are colloidal suspension, whose tiny particles are invisible to the naked eye (10-7 to 10-4 cm in diameter). Colloidal particles show no tendency to settle from solution, nor are they easily filtered. At the other extreme are particles with dimensions on th
8、e order of tenths of millimeter or greater. The temporary dispersion of such particles in the liquid phase is called a crystalline suspension. The particles of a crystalline suspension tend to settle spontaneously and are readily filtered.,What Factors Determine Particl,The particle size of a precip
9、itate is influenced by experimental variables as precipitate solubility, temperature, reactant concentrations, and the rate at which reactants are mixed. The particle size is related to a single property of the system called its relative supersaturation, whererelative supersaturation = (Q S) / SIn t
10、his equation, Q is the concentration of the solute at any instant and S is its equilibrium solubility.When (Q S)/ S is large, the precipitate tends to be colloidal. when (Q S) / S is small, a crystalline solid is more likely.,The particle size of a precip,How do Precipitates Form? Precipitates form
11、in two ways, by nucleation and by particle growth. The particle size of a freshly formed precipitate is determined by which way is faster.In nucleation, a few ions, atoms, or molecules (perhaps as few as four or five) come together to form a stable solid. Often, these nuclei form on the surface of s
12、uspended solid contaminants, such as dust particles. Further precipitation then involves a competition between additional nucleation and growth on existing nuclei (particle growth). If nucleation predominates, a precipitate containing a large number of small particles results; if growth predominates
13、, a smaller number of larger particles is produced.,How do Precipitates Form? Prec,Controlling Particle Size Experimental variables that minimize supersaturation and thus lead to crystalline precipitates include elevated temperatures to increase the solubility of the precipitate (S in Equation), dil
14、ute solutions (to minimize Q), and slow addition of the precipitating agent with good stirring. The last two measures also minimize the concentration of the solute (Q) at any given instant.Larger particles can also be obtained by pH control, provided the solubility of the precipitate depends on pH.,
15、Controlling Particle Size,Colloidal PrecipitatesCoagulation of Colloids: Coagulation can be hastened by heating, stirring, and adding an electrolyte to the medium.Colloidal suspensions are stable because all the particles present are either positively or negatively charged. This charge results from
16、cations or anions that are bound to the surface of the particles. The process by which ions are retained on the surface of a solid is known as adsorption. We can readily demonstrate that colloidal particles are charged by observing their migration when placed in an electrical field.,Colloidal Precip
17、itates,定量分析12重量分析法GravimetricMethodsofAnalysis课件,定量分析12重量分析法GravimetricMethodsofAnalysis课件,定量分析12重量分析法GravimetricMethodsofAnalysis课件,Peptization of Colloids Peptization refers to the process by which a coagulated colloid reverts to its original dispersed state. When a coagulated colloid is washed, s
18、ome of the electrolyte responsible for its coagulation is leached from the internal liquid in contact with the solid particles. Removal of this electrolyte has the effect of increasing the volume of the counter-ion layer. The repulsive forces responsible for the original colloidal state are then ree
19、stablished, and particles detach themselves from the coagulated mass. The washings become cloudy as the freshly dispersed particles pass through the filter.,Peptization of Colloids,Crystalline PrecipitatesCrystalline precipitates are generally more easily filtered and purified than coagulated colloi
20、ds. In addition, the size of individual crystalline particles, and thus their filterability, can be controlled to a degree.The particle size of crystalline solids can often be improved significantly by minimizing Q, maximizing S, or both in Equation. Minimization of Q is generally accomplished by us
21、ing dilute solution and adding the precipitating from hot solution or by adjusting the pH of the precipitation medium.Digestion of crystalline precipitates (without stirring) for some time after formation frequently yields a purer, more filterable product. The improvement in filterability results fr
22、om the dissolution and recrystallization.,Crystalline Precipitates,CoprecipitationCoprecipitation is the phenomenon in which soluble compounds are removed from solution during precipitate formation.There are four types of coprecipitation: i) surface adsorption, ii) mixed-crystal formation, iii) occl
23、usion, iv) mechanical entrapmentSurface adsorption and mixed crystal formation are equilibrium processes, whereas occlusion and mechanical entrapment arise from the kinetics of crystal growth.,Coprecipitation,Surface AdsorptionAdsorption is a common source of coprecipitation that is likely to cause
24、significant contamination of precipitates with large specific surface areas, that is coagulated colloids.Coagulation of a colloid does not significantly decrease the amount of adsorption because the coagulated solid still contains large internal surface areas that remain exposed to the solvent. The
25、coprecipitated contaminant on the coagulated colloid consists of the lattice ion originally adsorbed on the surface before coagulation and the counter ion of opposite charge held in the film of solution immediately adjacent to the particle. The net effect of surface adsorption is therefore the carry
26、ing down of an otherwise soluble compound as a surface contaminant.,Surface Adsorption,Minimizing Adsorbed Impurities on Colloids The purity of many coagulated colloids is improved by digestion. During this process, water is expelled from the solid to give a denser mass that has a smaller specific s
27、urface area for adsorption.Washing a coagulate colloid with a solution containing a volatile electrolyte may also be helpful because any nonvolatile electrolyte added earlier to cause coagulation is displace by the volatile species. Washing generally does not remove much of the primarily adsorbed io
28、ns because the attraction between these ions and the surface of the solid is too strong. Exchange occurs, however between existing counter ions and ions in the wash liquid.,Minimizing Adsorbed Impuritie,Reprecipitation A drastic but effective way to minimize the effects of adsorption is reprecipitat
29、ion, or double precipitation. Here, the filtered solid is redissolved and reprecipitated. The first precipitate ordinarily carries down only a fraction of the contaminant present in the original solvent. Thus, the solution containing the redissolved precipitate has a significantly lower contaminant
30、concentration than the original, and even less adsorption occurs during the second precipitation. Reprecipitation adds substantially to the time required for an analysis.,Reprecipitation,Mixed-Crystal FormationIn mixed-crystal formation, one of the ions in the crystal lattice of a solid is replaced
31、by an ion of another element. For this exchange to occur, it is necessary that the two ions have the same charge and that their sizes differ by no more than about 5%. Furthermore, the two salts must belong to the same crystal class. For example, MgKPO4, in MgNH4PO4, SrSO4 in BaSO4, and MnS in CdS.Th
32、e extent of mixed-crystal contamination increases as the ratio of contaminant to analyte concentration increases. Mixed-crystal formation is troublesome because little can be done about it. Separation of the interfering ion may have to be carried out before the final precipitation step. Alternativel
33、y, a different precipitating reagent may be used.,Mixed-Crystal Formation,Occlusion and Mechanical EntrapmentWhen a crystal is growing rapidly during precipitate formation, foreign ions in the counter-ion layer may become trapped, or occluded, within the growing crystal.Mechanical entrapment occurs
34、when crystals lie close together during growth. Here, several crystals grow together and in so doing trap a portion of the solution in a tiny pocket.Both occlusion and mechanical entrapment are at a minimum when the rate of precipitate formation is low, that is, under conditions of low supersaturati
35、on. Digestion is often remarkably helpful in reducing these types of copreipitation. The rapid solution and reprecipitation that goes on at the elevated temperature of digestion opens up the pockets and allows the impurities to escape into the solution.,Occlusion and Mechanical Entr,Precipitation fr
36、om Homogeneous SolutionPrecipitation from homogeneous solution is a technique in which a precipitating agent is generated in a solution of the analyte by a slow chemical reaction. Local reagent excesses do not occur because the precipitating agent appears gradually and homogeneously throughout the s
37、olution and reacts immediately with the analyte. As a result, the relative supersaturation is kept low during the entire precipitation. In general, homogeneously formed precipitates, both colloidal and crystalline, are better suited for analysis than a solid formed by direct addition of a precipitat
38、ing reagent.,Precipitation from Homogeneou,定量分析12重量分析法GravimetricMethodsofAnalysis课件,DRYING AND IGNITION OF PRECIPITATES,After filtration, a gravimetric precipitate is heated until its mass becomes constant. Heating removes the solvent and any volatile species carried down with the precipitate. Some
39、 precipitates are also ignited to decompose the solid and form a compound of known composition. This new compound is often called the weighing form.The temperature required to produce a suitable weighing form varies from precipitate to precipitate.,DRYING AND IGNITION OF PRECI,定量分析12重量分析法Gravimetric
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