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1、2009-9,Grammatical Hierarchy& Sentence Structure语法层次与句子结构,Introduction 导论,Lecture 1,1,2013-9,Grammatical Hierarchy,Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English language is organized in to five ranks: （五个层次） sentence 句子 clause 分句 phrase 词组 word 词 morpheme 词素 Each rank is
2、 composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituentsthe morpheme.,Syntax (句法),Morphology (词法),2,我们可以通过切分把句子进行层层切分，分成最小的构成成分。例如：句子：Paul is one of the nicest schoolboys I know.分句：Paul i
3、s one of the nicest schoolboys（主要分句） （who/whom) I know （从属分句）词组：one of the nicest schoolboys （名词词组） of the nicest schoolboys （介词词组） the nicest schoolboys （名词词组） is one of the nicest schoolboys （动词词组） know (whom) （动词词组）词： Paul, one, schoolboys, I, of, nicest, know, is, the词素：Paul, one, school, boy, -
4、s, I, is, know, the, nice, -est,3,Sentence Clause NP VP Prep P Det N Aux Adv MV Prep Det N These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improving in their writ-ing.,4,1. Morphemes (词素),词素是最小的语法单位，也是最小的语义单位。The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speec
5、h. Morphemes fall into two categories: （分为两大类）free morphemes and bound morphemes.,5, the smallest meaningful element of speech (最小语义单位) free morpheme bound morpheme (自由词素) (粘附词素) complete meaning; incomplete meaning; stand by itself as cant stand alone, simple word attached to other forms e.g. boy,
6、girl, take, e.g. kindness, unkind, school, kind unkindness, kindly,Morpheme词素,6,1）Free morphemes (自由词素）本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词素。e.g. boy girl desk kind give take2) Bound morphemes (粘附词素）本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，必须粘附在自由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素。e.g. anti-war Marxist unlucky postwar movement co-existence,7,2. Words
7、(词),The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways: 1) Classification in terms of word-formation （根据构词法分类） 2) Classification in terms of grammatical function （根据语法功能分类）,2009-9,9,1）简单词、派生词、复合词 In terms of word-formation, words can be divided into:a) Simple
8、Word (简单词）b) Derivative （派生词）c) Compound Word（合成词）,2009-9,10,2009-9,11,Simple Word (简单词）又叫“单词素词”（morpheme word), 由单一自由词素构成，多半是一些短小的词，如：at, by, foot, take, make 等b) Derivative （派生词）由词根加派生词缀构成，同一词根加不同词缀可表示不同的意义或不同的词性。如：unfair, nonsmoker, misjudge, overeat, international, belittle 等,c) Compound Word（复合
9、词）通常由两个或两个以上自由词素构成。如： deadline, handbook, driveway, toothpick, downfall 等,2009-9,13,2）封闭词类和开放词类In terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two main groups:a) Closed Class (封闭词类) 封闭词类指所有的功能词，包括:介词 (Preposition), 如：in, of, on, without代词 (Pronoun), 如：you, he, one, which限定词 (Determiner),
10、 如：a, the, this连词 (Conjunction), 如：and, or, but助动词 (Auxiliary), 如：do，can, may,2009-9,14,b) Open Class (开放词类）开放词类指各种实义词，包括：名词 (Noun)， 如：man, Paris, drama形容词 (Adjective), 如：old, big, cheap副词 (Adverb), 如：here, there, late 主动词 (Main Verb),如：work, give, make此外还有基数词 (Cardinal Numeral)，序数词(Ordinal Numeral)
11、，感叹词(Interjection)是介乎“封闭”与“开放”之间的词类,2009-9,15,3. Phrases （词组）,词组是由一个或一个以上的词构成的语法单位The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and
12、the way in which the words are organized.,17,1) The noun phrase （名词词组） The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner+) (premodifier+) noun (+postmodifier) e.g. all the college students his new book on phonology the tall boy sitting in the c
13、orner the authors new novel that will soon come out,18,2) The verb phrase （动词词组） The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”. A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an a
14、uxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+ modifier). e.g. She looks pale. It is getting dark. John will certainly object and so will Mary.,19,3) The adjective phrase （形容词词组） The adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is: (modifier+) adjective (+post
15、modifier/ complementation) e.g. The weather is fine today. The course is pretty difficult. Youre not careful enough.,20,4) The adverb phrase （副词词组） The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is: (modifier+) adverb (+postmodifier) e.g. He spoke l
16、oudly and clearly. Be a man. Do not act so slowly. She spoke very clearly indeed.,21,5) The prepositional phrase （介词词组） The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: (modifier+) preposition + complementation e.g. Were collectin
17、g money for the benefit of some orphans. The student consulted his adviser about the two courses.,21,4. Clause 分句,The clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged（完全的）clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.分句是建立在一个或一个以上
18、词组基础上的语法单位；从逻辑意义上看，分句又是一种“主语+谓语”的语法构造。,20,1) Independent and dependent clauses An independent clause (独立分句） is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance. e.g. He knows everything about it. That hat does not fit; you may try another. A dependent clause (从属分句） forms only part o
19、f another clause or of a phrase. e.g. I dont think he knows everything about it. If that hat does not fit, try another.,21,2) Simple and complex clauses When a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause（简单分句）. e.g. It is not true.(独立简单分句/简单句) He said tha
20、t it was not true. (从属简单分句) When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause （复杂分句）. e.g. What you said is not true. (简单复杂分句/复杂句） He complained that what you said was not true. （从属复杂分句）,22,3) Main and subordinate clauses (主句和从句） In a complex
21、clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause. He complained that what you said was not true. 从句 主句 从句 主句,23,4) Finite and non-finite clauses 限定分句 & 非限定分句 A finite clause is one with a finit
22、e verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator. e.g. He complained that what he said was not true. A non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator. e.g. I signed the paper to get the license. Cant you recall telling me that story last week?,24,5) Verbless clauses W
23、hen a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element. It is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element. e.g. Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned. Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with
24、 excitement.,25,5. Sentence 句子,The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a gr
25、ammatical unit that can perform a communicative function.,29,1) Full and minor sentences （完全句和不完全句） A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. e.g. I signed the paper to get the license. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situation
26、 can stand by itself and perform a communicate function. e.g. No smoking!,30,2) Simple, Compound, Complex and Compound-complex sentences A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. When an independe
27、nt clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its elements. This makes a complex sentence. Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.,31,6. Sentence Structure （句子结构）,Logically speaking, a clause is a construction of “Subject
28、+ Predicate”.,29,1）Basic clause types (基本句型),S-V-C（主-动-补） eg. The car is mine. S-V（主-动） eg. Iron rusts.S-V-O（主-动-宾） eg. I want a theatre ticket.S-V-o-O (主-动-宾-宾) eg. Mary lent me her car.S-V-O-C (主-动-宾-补) eg. They elected him president.S-V-A （主-动-状） eg. I lived in Beijing. S-V-O-A (主-动-宾-状) eg. I put the book on the shelf.,2）Transformation （转换）,eg. She gave him the book. She didnt give him the book. （转否定） Did she give him the book? （转疑问） A book was given to him. （转被动）,30,
