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1、传统媒体：在新媒体最弱处竞争 x 张立伟单位：四川省社会科学院来源：中华传媒网 关键词： 传统媒体 新媒体阅读：2214次 2004年以来，传统媒体尤其是报业的未来成为不断讨论的话题。“消亡论”、“冬天论”还有消亡的时间表纷纷出笼，争论的焦点之一是新媒体能否替代传统媒体。一当然，部分替代无可避免，新媒体总会拉走一批受众，分歧的实质是能否完全替代。我从一个新角度看完全替代之不可能，关键是传统媒体是大众媒体，新媒体是小众媒体。后者一开始就是着眼于小众，最初也是最基本的网络运用是电子邮件、论坛、聊天室、个人主页、文件传输新媒体进入了一个传统媒体没有注意也几乎无法涉足的细分市场。随后，传统媒体就满腔热
2、情追求“融合”了，纷纷上网“晒”自己的内容或者自办网站。或者免费送给商业网站，1999年辽沈晚报与新浪签订合作协议，要求后者必须以24小时滚动的方式，在第一时间把自己的新闻上网，不要钱，只要注明报名就行。或者以极低的价格成交，当时搜狐网的新闻主管说，一年3万元人民币就是合作者里较多的了一年？所有编辑记者的心血！3万元？！欲哭无泪！只说这融合的结果，实际“养大”了竞争对手。最近读到李幸先生一段话：“其实融合是互联网媒体的事，他们才要融合文字、图片、声音与影像；传统媒体讲融合，就把自己融到互联网里去了。”恍然大悟！以前怎么没有这样想过呢？传统媒体是不是中了新媒体的“招”呢？蓬门今始为君开，请客容易
3、送客难新媒体兵不血刃就进入了传统媒体的核心市场，成为“貌似”的大众媒体现在普遍说法是新媒体既是大众媒体又是小众媒体，既能“一对多”又能“一对一”地传播。但我们认真想一下，那些“一对多”的大众传播内容，究竟是“谁”创造的？如果把传统媒体“创造”的内容全部拿下，新媒体还有“大众”吗？现在说这些当然事后诸葛亮了，过去的已经过去，是好是坏，认命了，关键是今后怎么过？今后怎么过有些是操作性的，如关于“网上支付墙”的种种尝试。而网上收费之艰难、之无策，更反证传统媒体追求融合是“成功得真失败”，上网对自己的贡献之一，就是害苦了自己！不忍心多说，还是贡献点理念吧。关键是认清新媒体是小众媒体。且不说其“大众”内
4、容基本是传统媒体供应的，只说新媒体自身的几大运用。首先是个性化搜索。搜索取决于兴趣，还取决于有多少时间、在一天中的那个时段、以及希望获得多少信息、当时的心情等等，直言之，搜索根植于个体差异。其次是圈子化交流。搜索小到“我”，社交小到“圈子”。社交网站如QQ校友录、人人网（原校内网），就是一个个学生圈子。2010年12月的豆瓣社区，有4699万网民，20万个用户自建的兴趣小组235人每组。再考虑那些临时小众，如BBS的话题与跟帖；固定小众，如网易社区、讨论版、QQ群、博主及其追随者更可看清什么是小众甚至微众的圈子化交流。最后是手工化生产。与工业化、组织化生产相对的手工制造。所谓Web2.0，就是
5、用户“自产”内容的蔚为大观：博客、播客、拍客、晒客、闪客、短信迷、网络写手近几年又兴起微博，手工生产的门槛不断降低。从Web1.0到Web2.0，越来越显出手工化生产的草根狂欢。而这三层：个性化搜索、圈子化交流、手工化生产的叠加，也使新媒体愈来愈凸现小众媒体的本质或趋势。正是小众特征形成了新媒体的强势。其中既有传播原因：它把传播实践中早就存在的细分受众推向了极致；更有社会原因：利益多元化、社会民主化、个人表现欲有了技术可能等等。但是，一个健康社会总是永恒的双向运动：一边分殊化（分众化、分散化、去中心化），一边中心化，两者永远在同时进行。而愈是分殊化，就愈要重建或强化中心化。只说中国，一心一意谋
6、发展、全面建成小康社会、凝聚共识、舆论导向、主旋律等等，都是强化中心化的努力。放入“社会双向运动”的背景，新媒体的强势恰恰成弱点。只引中外两段话。一是香港作家林夕：“讨论区、聊天室仿佛逢青必愤，看十段留言与百段没有任何分别，写的看的都两败俱伤，浪费生命。”二是全球最大独立公关公司爱德曼公关公司总裁兼首席执行官理查德埃德尔曼：“在媒体技术爆炸的时代，除了每个人自己坚持的真理外，不会再有真理了。”新媒体的强势又成为弱点。看清新媒体的弱点，它就绝不可能完全替代传统媒体。传统媒体与新媒体将长久处于竞争与合作之中，但现在说合作已经太多，看看铺天盖地的论“媒介融合”吧，合作过度了，我要强调竞争。竞争就要“
7、避实击虚”，但攻击一般弱点没用，莱温斯基是克林顿的弱点，但把他从总统位置拉不下去！要瞄准强势中的弱点，弱点是强势的孪生体，是其强大力量的固有部分。对其的攻击是无法正面反击的，一旦正面反击，就会削弱其强势。那么，传统媒体就要在替代品最弱处竞争，即选择最佳战场作战，那是竞争对手准备不足、热情不足而又有报复障碍的战场。直言之，新媒体占据分殊化，传统媒体就要加强中心化，从众声喧哗到凝聚焦点凝聚一心一意谋发展、加快中国现代化的共识。二传统媒体加强中心化的主要考虑，倒还不是针对新媒体。正读曹锦清先生的如何研究中国，两段话深获我心。他说：“当代中国社会转型的真正起点是1982年废除人民公社体制并全面推行土地
8、家庭联产承包责任制。土地家庭联产承包责任制的要害在于一个分。伴随此分而来的一系列分化从所谓的产权分化（从所有权与使用权的分开，到化公为私）、贫富分化、阶层分化、区域分化、城乡分化，直到所谓的政企分开、党政分开等等乃是改革开放以来最引人注目的社会变化。分或说从整体中分离出来获得个体行为自由也是改革开放以来最引人注目的精神现象。”这就是形成新媒体强势的社会原因。明了这个背景，越专注“分”的新媒体，就活得越好。有人将中国目前的互联网市场格局概括为“三大三小”。三大是：腾讯、百度、阿里巴巴，三小是：网易、新浪、搜狐。大小是按市值计算，每一个“大”，都有能力买下“三小”中的任何一家！真让人感慨万千，只说
9、新浪，费了航天飞机那么大的劲头做新闻，没有把自己“做大”反而“做小”了！做新闻真不是新媒体所长！而反观“三大”，那不正是着力开发“小众”的：个性化搜索、圈子化交流（腾讯QQ与阿里巴巴的B2B）么？曹先生继续说：“恰如合久必分一样，分久也促成新的社会关怀与合作。随着中国经济持续增长、综合国力持续提高，正在崛起的中华民族必定会召唤能思的头脑为它提供全新的思想。这个思想要回答这样一个重大而紧迫的问题：我们现处何地，从何而来，将欲何往？即现代中国在自身历史发展脉络中的自我定位和当代中国在全球化今天的国际定位。一个正在崛起的东方大国，要求思想重新负担起重建宏大历史叙事的使命。”现只说新闻，这中华民族“宏
10、大历史叙事”的实质就是凝聚焦点凝聚现代化发展的共识。具体形式，就是我这几年一再强调的发展报道，现对其作出新表述：发展报道即中国现代化报道。现代化六大领域：经济、政治、文化、社会、环境与人，横向看，发展报道一分为六，细分为：经济发展报道、政治发展报道、文化发展报道、社会发展报道、环境发展报道、人的发展报道。纵向看，不同阶段有不同发展重点，本世纪第二个10年，重点是按各地的新时刻表“建成”全面小康社会的报道；前50年，重点是各地基本实现现代化的报道；后50年，重点是全面实现现代化的报道。发展报道是21世纪最重要的主流新闻。做好发展报道，是充分发挥传统媒体作为“大众媒体”的特长我不知道新媒体怎么做发
11、展报道，不管是“大三”还是“小三”只有大众媒体才能担当中华民族的“宏大历史叙事”，讲述一个迅速现代化的古老民族伟大复兴的新闻故事。具体到各家传统媒体，那就是：服务当地与中国的发展同时实现自己的迅速发展，与现代化中国一起成长。至于与新媒体的竞争，就算附带赠品吧！（原载：青年记者2011年1月上）说明：以上是拙著传媒竞争：法则与工具第二版（清华大学出版社2011年1月出版）新增部分的改写，这个思想在修订版中有详细展开。注释唐小兵、陈新华：网战中国新闻界悄悄孕育的革命，8083页，广东人民出版社，2001李幸：今天我们如何做电视？，综艺报2010（一八）林夕：就算天空再深，261页，广西大学出版社，
12、2010转引自安德鲁基恩：网民的狂欢关于互联网弊端的反思，16页，南海出版公司，2010A里斯，J特劳特：营销战，86页，中国财政经济出版社，2002曹锦清：如何研究中国，327，331332页，上海人民出版社，2010Alternative media are media (newspapers, radio, television, magazines, movies, Internet, etc.) which provide alternative information to the mainstream media in a given context, whether the m
13、ainstream media are commercial, publicly supported, or government-owned. Alternative media differ from mainstream media along one or more of the following dimensions: their content, aesthetic, modes of production, modes of distribution, and audience relations.1 Alternative media often aim to challen
14、ge existing powers, to represent marginalized groups, and to foster horizontal linkages among communities of interest.2 Proponents of alternative media argue that the mainstream media are biased in the selection and framing of news and information. While sources of alternative media can also be bias
15、ed (sometimes proudly so), proponents claim that the bias is significantly different than that of the mainstream media because they have a different set of values, objectives, and frameworks. Hence these media provide an alternative viewpoint, different information and interpretations of the world t
16、hat cannot be found in the mainstream. As such, advocacy journalism tends to be a component of many alternative outlets.Because the term alternative has connotations of self-marginalization, some media outlets now prefer the term independent over alternative.Several different categories of media may
17、 fall under the heading of alternative media. These include, but are not limited to, radical and dissident media, social movement media, ethnic/racial media, indigenous media, community media, subcultural media, student media, and avant-garde media. Each of these categories highlights the perceived
18、shortcomings of dominant media to serve particular audiences, aims and interests, and attempts to overcome these shortcomings through their own media.The traditional, binary definition of alternative media as stated above has been expanded in the last decade. Simply comparing alternative media to th
19、e mainstream media ignores the profound effect that making media has on the makers. As producers and actors within their community, modern alternative media activists redefine their self-image, their interpretation of citizenship, and their world. Clemencia Rodriguez explains, I could see how produc
20、ing alternative media messages implies much more than simply challenging the mainstream media . It implies having the opportunity to create ones own images of self and environment; it implies being able to recodify ones own identity with the signs and codes that one chooses, thereby disrupting the t
21、raditional acceptance of those imposed by outside sources.” 3With the increasing importance attributed to digital technologies, questions have arisen about where digital media fit in the dichotomy between alternative and mainstream media. Blogs, Facebook, Twitter and other similar sites, while not n
22、ecessarily created to be information media, increasingly are being used to spread news and information, potentially acting as alternative media as they allow ordinary citizens to bypass the gatekeepers of traditional, mainstream media and share the information and perspectives these citizens deem im
23、portant.2 Additionally, digital media provide an alternative space for deviant, dissident or non-traditional views, and allow for the creation of new, alternative communities that can provide a voice for those normally marginalized by the mainstream media.4 However, some have criticized the weakness
24、es of the Web. First, for its ability to act as both alternative and a mass medium brings with it the tension of in-group and out-group communication. Second, the Web rarely lives up to its potential with constraints to access.5Digital technologies have also led to an alternative form of video more
25、commonly known as citizen generated journalism. Individuals and smaller groups have the potential to describe and make public their interpretations of the world.6 Video shot on camcorders, FLIP cameras, and now cell phones have been utilized by the alternative media to commonly show human rights abu
26、ses. In turn the mainstream media picks up on these videos when it fits their narrative of what it deems newsworthy.7Contents hide1 Propaganda model2 Press3 Avant-garde media4 Community, low-power and pirate radio5 Ethnic and racial media6 Audiences7 See also8 Alternative media scholars9 Referencese
27、ditPropaganda modelMain article: Propaganda modelEdward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky proposed a concrete model for the filtering processes (biases) of mainstream media, especially in the United States, called the propaganda model. They tested this empirically and presented extensive quantified evidenc
28、e supporting the model.8 Communication scholar Robert W. McChesney, inspired in part by the work of Chomsky and Herman, has linked the failures of the mainstream press primarily to corporate ownership, pro-corporate public policy, and the myth of professional journalism. He has published extensively
29、 on the failures of the mainstream press, and advocates scholarship in the study of the political economy of the media, the growth of alternative media, and comprehensive media policy reforms.9 Ben Bagdikian has also written about the takeover of biased media, with particular attention to the giant
30、conglomerates that own them. He argues that because five large conglomerates own the majority of American media, politics and general media influence in America are in jeopardy.10Whereas some alternative media theorists (e.g., Chris Atton) propose broad definitions of media alterity, parecon theoris
31、t and Z Magazine cofounder Michael Albert incorporates the politico-economic critique of mainstream media into his definition of alternative media. In answering the question What makes alternative media alternative? he suggests that alternative media institutions should feature an anti-corporate str
32、ucture, not just alternative media content. Along these lines, Albert has criticized publications such as The Nation and the Village Voice for replicating corporate hierarchies and divisions of labor.11While the Propaganda Model resonates in productive ways with the way in which media systems have d
33、eveloped in the United States context, this theory might fall short in describing the situation in nations outside of the American context. The Propaganda Model would have a hard time explaining nations with a weak communications infrastructure (somewhere like Zimbabwe), heavily funded and state spo
34、nsored public broadcasting television stations (such as Australia), or with a strong tradition of partisan print and televised journalism.editPressThe alternative press consists of printed publications that provide a different or dissident viewpoint than that provided by major mainstream and corpora
35、te newspapers, magazines, and other print media.Factsheet Five publisher Mike Gunderloy described the alternative press as sort of the grown-up underground press. Whole Earth, the Boston Phoenix, and Mother Jones are the sorts of things that fall in this classification.12 In contrast, Gunderloy desc
36、ribed the underground press as the real thing, before it gets slick, co-opted, and profitable. The underground press comes out in small quantities, is often illegible, treads on the thin ice of unmentionable subjects, and never carries ads for designer jeans.12An example of alternative media is tact
37、ical media, which uses hit-and-run tactics to bring attention to an emerging problem. Often tactical media attempts to expose large corporations that control sources of mainstream media.One prominent NGO dedicated to tactical media practices and info-activism is the Tactical Technology Collective wh
38、ich assists human rights advocates in using technology. They have released several toolkits freely to the global community, including NGO In A Box South Asia, which assists in the setting up the framework of a self-sustaining NGO, Security-In-A-Box, a collection of software to keep data secure and s
39、afe for NGOs operating in potentially hostile political climates, and their new short form toolkit 10 Tactics, which . provides original and artful ways for rights advocates to capture attention and communicate a cause.一三editAvant-garde mediaThe category of avant-garde media emphasizes the experimen
40、tal and innovative aspect of a certain kind of alternative media that stands out for its aesthetic qualities and that is usually produced by artists.Examples of avant-garde media can be found in the works of the Situationist International, Dadaism, Surrealism, Punk literature, Epic Theatre, Theatre
41、of the Oppressed, Stencil graffiti. Groups like the Situationist International bring to the table questions of how alternative media can be conceptualized as a formal strategy. While the group was largely composed of students, professors, intellectuals, etc., the techniques they choose to use(such a
42、s dtournement ) address the question of alternative media as an aesthetic practice.editCommunity, low-power and pirate radioIn many countries around the world, specific categories of radio stations are licensed to provided targeted broadcasts to specific communities, including community radio and lo
43、w-power FM (LPFM). Such stations typically broadcast with less wattage than commercial or public/state-run broadcasters, and are often non-commercial and non-profit in nature. In the United States, a special class of stations known as low-power FM (LPFM) stations were first authorized by the U.S. Fe
44、deral Communications Commission (FCC) in January 2000. These stations are authorized to provide non-commercial, educational broadcasting and cannot operate with an effective radiated power of more than 100 watts. LPFM services were authorized to meet the increasing demand which existed in the United
45、 States for the creation of new, hyper-local radio outlets that would be grounded in their respective communities.14 The Prometheus Radio Project is a grassroots organization in the United States which advocates the establishment of LPFM stations and provides assistance to start-up LPFM stations.In
46、addition, non-commercial broadcasters in the United States are also afforded exclusive use of the FM spectrum between 88.1 and 91.9 megahertz. This portion of the dial includes some radio stations which could be classified as alternative media, including community-run and student-run radio stations,
47、 though there also exist many stations that are affiliated with large national broadcasters such as National Public Radio or large religious organizations.Throughout the world, numerous other countries have also authorized community radio services, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, th
48、e Netherlands, Hungary, Ireland, Nepal, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, and many others. In many countries, including the United States, pirate radio stations also operate without any official license, in many cases providing programming to communities underserved by licensed broadcasters.editEthnic and racial mediaEthnic media and racial media outlets, including ethnic newspapers, radio stations and television
