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1、考研讲义8 Pragmatics,Grace Tan,主要考点,言语行为的定义，种类，实例分析合作原则及其四条准则的内容，实力分析会话含义语句意义和句子意义的区别,T/F,The cooperative principle,an important pragmatic principle proposed by Grice,aims to explain how we mean more than we say.A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.According to Searles
2、 classification of speech acts,request,order,suggest and advise all belong to the same one general class because they are all intended by the speaker to get the hearer to do sth.TTT,Multiple choice,1.An illocutionary act is identical with _A.sentence meaning b.the speaker,s intentionC.lg understandi
3、ng d.the speaker,s competence2.the indirect speech act was developed by A.John Austin B.Levinson C.John Lyons D.John Searle,Definition,Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding,and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.In another wo
4、rd it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.,Syntactics,Semantics,Pragmatics,In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced the word“Pragmatics”into literature.莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年符号基础理论中提出符号三分说：句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学
5、semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。,符号三分说Syntactics:the formal relation of signs to one another.Semantics:the relations of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable.Pragmatics:the relation of signs to interpreters.,Both are concerned with study of meaning.没有第一层次的研究，很难
6、进行第二层次的研究语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realization Chomsky,Semantics&Pragmatics,Peter bought a car.It was Peter who bought a car.It was a car that Peter bought.What peter bought was a car.句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果语义学：这些句子都是同义的。语用学：这些句子都是不同的。,
7、Semantics&Pragmatics,恭喜你语音学家:分析其中每个字的发音以及整个句子的语调。句法学家:指出这是一个无主语的祈使句，有一个动词加一个代词组成。语义学家:这句话的意思：向某个人表示祝贺。语用学家:将结合具体语境，考虑说话人是谁，“你”又是谁，说话人在怎样的情况下向“你”道喜，他是真的道喜，还是挖苦嘲讽，甚至是泄愤？,Pragmatics may also be defined as the study of language in actual use.Meaning in pragmatics is different from the meaning we studied
8、 in semantics mostly in the sense that pragmatic meaning depends more on context.,Sentence Meaning Utterance Meaning,It is the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition.,It is context-dependent.It is the product of sentence meaning and context.Therefore,it is richer than the me
9、aning of the sentence.,_ is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.A.Syntax B.Semantics C.Pragmatics D.SociolinguisticsAnswer:C,58._ is concerned with the study of the actual use of language in communication.A.sociolinguistics B.semantics C.pragmatics D.synchronic lingu
10、isticsAnswer:B,82.Once the notion of _ was taken into consideration,semantics spilled into pragmatics.A.meaning B.context C.form D.contentAnswer:B,Speech act theory,The first major theory in the study of language in use.Originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin.How to Do Things wit
11、h Words(1962)怎样用词做事Performantive&ConstativeThe theory of Illocutionary Act,Performative&Constative,If the uttering of the sentences is a part of the doing of an action,the sentences are called performatives.And verbs like name are called performative verbs.I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.I prom
12、ise to finish it in time.I apologize.,言有所为包括完成一个动作如结婚、命名、遗赠、打赌或实施某一行为如许诺、警告、道歉、欢迎等。In contrast,constatives are descriptions of what the speaker is doing at the moment of speaking.同济大学Illustrate the difference between constative and performative utterance.,(2)Searl对言外行为的分类1）阐述类（representatives），swear
13、,state,assert,claim,guess,hypothesize.2）指令类(directives)，beg,request,advise,invite,suggest,insist,order,demand.3）承诺类(commissives)，promise,undertake,vow.4）表达类(expressives)，apologize,congratulate,thank,sympathize,condole.5）宣告类(declarations),name,declare,appoint.,东南大学2002What are the five general types
14、of illocutionary speech acts John Searle has specified?Give examples to each of them.,Felicity conditions 合适条件,There are conditions for performatives to meet to be appropriate or felicitous.Austin suggested the following conditions:A.(i)There must be a relevant conventional procedure,(ii)The relevan
15、t participants and circumstance must be appropriate.B.The procedure must be executed(i)correctly and(ii)completely.C.(i)The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts,feelings and intentions,(ii)must follow it up with actions as specified.,Example:the case of a ship-launching ceremony;the case
16、 of bequeathing ones watch;the case of bettingFeatures of typical performatives:Use first person singular subject,simple present tense,indicative mood,active voice and performative verbs,53.The sentence“I apologize!”belongs to the category of _ according to the speech act theory.A.expressive B.perfo
17、rmative C.representative D.constativeAnswer:B,19.The _ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.A.performative B.phatic C.recreational D.emotiveAnswer:D,81.The functi
18、on of the sentence“Lovely weather,isnt it?”is _A.informative B.phatic C.performative D.recreationalAnswer:B,Functions of Language,informative（信息功能）interpersonal function（人际功能）Performative(施为功能，该概念来自于Austin&Searle 的言语行为理论speech act theory)。Emotive function（感情功能）Phatic communion（交互性功能：如礼节性的交谈ritual ex
19、changes,俚语slangs,jokes,行话jargons等。通常是用来填充谈话内容空缺的情况，如英国人谈论天气。该术语来源于人类语言学家Malinowski马林诺夫斯基。）Recreational function（娱乐性功能，a babys babbling or a chanters chanting）Metalingual function（元语言功能，用语言来谈论语言),a theory of the Illocutionary act,An Locutionary Act means that when we speak,we move our vocal organs an
20、d produce a number of sounds with a certain meaning.An Illocutionary Act is using a sentence to perform a function.A Perlocutionary Act is the result or effects that are produced by meanings of saying something.,100.John Austin proposed _ in the late 1950s.A.Speech Act Theory B.7 types of meaning C.
21、Cooperative Principle D.Predication analysisAnswer:A,149.The first major theory in the study of language in use in called _.A.illocutionary theory B.Speech Act Theory C.conversational implicature D.the Q and R-principleAnswer:B,60._refers to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and ref
22、erence.A.Locutionary act B.illocutionary act C.perlocutionary act D.speech actAnswer:A,the theory of conversational implicature,the Cooperative Principlecharacteristics of implicature,Conversational implicature,Proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herebrt Paul Grice.Logic and Conversation 逻辑与形式在我们
23、所说的话和我们说话的用意之间常有一定的距离，这种话语的用意就是“会话含义”（Conversational implicature）A:Can you tell me the time?B:Well,the mail has already come.A:Are you going to Johns birthday party?B:Ive heard Mary is going.,the Cooperative Principle,Quantity MaximQuality MaximRelation MaximManner Maxim,Quantity Maxim,make your con
24、tribution as informative as is required(for the current purposes of the exchange).Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.,A:Where does X live?B:Somewhere in the suburbs of the city.Dear Sir,Mr.Xs command of English is excellent and his attendance at tutorials has been regula
25、r,yours,etc.,Quality Maxim:,Try to make your conversation one that is true.Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.,Life is a journey.Life is a box of chocolate.He is a fox.He has a heart of stone.,Relation Maxim Be relevantA:Can you answer the te
26、lephone?B:Im in the bath.A:The hostess is an awful bore,dont think?B:The roses are lovely,arent they?,Manner MaximBe perspicuousavoid obscurity of expressions.Avoid ambiguity.Be brief.Be orderly.,A:Lets get the kids something.B:Okay,but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Miss X produced a series of sounds that
27、correspond closely with the score of“Home,Sweet Home.”,1.There are _ maxims under the cooperative principle.A.2 B.3 C.4 D.5Answer:C,2.The maxim of _ requires that a participations contribution be relevant to the conversation.A.quantity B.quality C.manner D.relationAnswer:D,3.The maxim of quality req
28、uires:do not say what you believe to be _.A.false B.true C.indirect D.insufficientAnswer:A,4.Grice introduces four categories of maxims,which one means we should be clear in our meaning?A.Quantity Maxim B.Manner Maxim C.Quality Maxim D.Relation MaximAnswer:B,东大2003,How to explain the following examp
29、le with the cooperative principle?A:Can you answer the telephone?B.i am in the bath.,中大2001,Consider the following exchange:A:Tom is an excellent linguist.Dont you think?B:He is a good cook.WHAT maxim does B violate in the exchange?and what do you think would be the possible implicature of B?,北外,Usi
30、ng what you know about Grices cooperative principle and its four maxims to analyze the following short exchange.(20 points)同事甲：小张昨晚去哪儿了？同事乙：今天早上我看见一辆白色富康停在小林家门口。Xiao Zhang drove to Xiao Lins last night.Maxim of relation or relevance,湖师大,Can you think of a situation in which B utterance in the follow
31、ing is relevant?A:I do think Mrs.Jenkins is an old windbag,dont you?B:Huh,lovely weather for March,isnt it?At a genteel tea party.A has committed a social gaffe(出丑）.,Conversational implicatures,People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.H.P.GriceWilliam James lectures at Harvar
32、d in 1967Logic and Conversation in 1975Annie:Was the dessert any good?Mark:Annie,Cherry pie is cherry pie.,characteristics of implicature,1)Calculability:the fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and hearers are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable
33、.你长得真爱国啊！,2)cancellability:,Also known as DEFEASIBILITY（可废除性）.The presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors:the conventional meaning of words used,the CP,the linguistic and situational contexts.So if any of them changes,the implicature will also change.可取消性一般由两个因素引起：一是说话
34、人在原先的话语上附加一个分句来表明（或暗示）自己要取消（或废除）原来说话的语用含义；二是话语在特定的语境中表明（或暗示）说话人意欲取消（或废除）该话语中的语用含义。,A)通过附加一个分句来取消含义的例子：a.John has three cows.b.John has only three cows and no more.c.John has three cows,if not more.d.John has at least three cows.B)话语的语用含义在特定的语境中可被取消的例子：School staff member:Has John got 50 credits?Teac
35、her:Yes,he has got 50 credits all right.,A:Do you want some coffee?B1:Coffee would keep me awake.B2:Coffee would keep me awake.I want to stay up.,北外2002,In each of the following sentences,the second part cancels some information by the first part.However,this seems to result in quite acceptable utte
36、rance in group(1)and in very awkward in group(2).explain why.Group(1)A.老张有三个孩子，其实还不止三个。B.我只喜欢黄色和蓝色，不过试试红色也未尝不可。C.约翰的普通话说得还可以，确切的说是非常棒。Group(2)A.我特后悔选修了这门课，其实我没有选修这门课。B.她这次考试又不及格，不过她上次及格了。C.我在乡下日子过得很苦，说真的，我没在乡下呆过。,Answer,In each sentence in group(1),the information cancelled by the second part is the
37、 implicature of the first part.This is possible because of the cancel ability of implicatures.the presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors:the conventional meaning of words used,the CP,the linguistic and situational contexts etc.if any of them changes,the implicature wi
38、ll also change.By contrast,the two parts in group(2)are inconsistent with each other in their sense relationship,that is,if X is true,Y is false,;also,if Y is true,X is false.,3)Non-detachability:it means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said,not to th
39、e linguistic form.如果话语在特定的语境中产生了语用含义，则无论使用什么样的同义结构，含义始终存在。假如大家都知道Jack is an idiot,但偏要嘲笑说Jack is a genius，含义为“杰克非常愚蠢。”改说任何一种同义结构，含义不变：A:Shall we go to the cinema tonight?B:Therell be an exam tomorrow.Ill take an exam tomorrow.Isnt there an exam tomorrow?,4)Non-conventionality非规约性Conversational implic
40、ature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words.It is context-dependent.It varies with context.会话含义是通过合作原则中各项准则，通过话语的字面意义，结合语境推导出来的。先有字面意义，才有语用含义。含义不是字面意义，也不是字面意义的一部分。字面意义在话语中是不变的，而语用含义却可能各式各样，随着语境的变化，含义也可能变化或消失。Its cold here.A1：下午踢球去吧！A2：老王住院了？B：上午还在换草皮。A3:足球场安装了一个新门柱。,Expla
41、in the relationship between cooperative principle and conversational implicature.Pragamatically account fo the difference between(1)What do you mean by X?AND(2)What does X mean?Explain with examples the reasons why utterance meaning is context-dependent.,南开2003,A professor wrote a reference letter f
42、or his past student X WHO is applying for a fellowship in philosophy:”Dear sir,Mr.Xs command of English is excellent,and his attendance at tutorials has been regular.”Make comments on this letter in terms of the theory of converational implicature.,Movie scene:lovers walking by the lake.Boy:You look
43、 beautiful when donot wear glasses.Girl(angrily):then I must be ugly with my glasses on.No matter how the boy explained,it was in vain.Explain the reasons why the conversation became such a mess.,Post-Gricean developments,Relevance theorythe Q-and R-principles,Relevance theory,Dan Sperber and Deidre
44、 Wilson argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.Communication should be seen as an act of making clear ones intension to express something,and
45、 this act is called an ostensive act.,Relevance Theory 关联理论,语用学者除了研究“说话人意义”之外，更转向研究“话语的理解”问题。“话语的理解”的学者热衷于从认知的角度看待自然语言交际。与交际、认知有关的关联理论是近年来给西方语言学界带来较大影响的认知语用理论。这种理论体系不以规则为基础（rule-based），也不以准则为基础（maxim-based），而是以几个十分简单的看法作为依据。,The theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their
46、 book Relevance:Communication and Cognition(关联性：交际与认知).They argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.每一个明示交际行动都传递一种假定：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。,Two key not
47、ions in it:Ostensive communication&presumption of optimal relevance1)Ostensive communication:Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding,it also involves inference.They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer.From the speakers side,communication should be seen as an
48、act of making clear ones intention to express something.This is called ostensive act.A complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential(明示-推理).,明示-推理交际是交际过程的两个方面。从交际者的角度看，交际是一种明示过程。所谓“明示”，就是示意，明白无误地示意。交际时，说话人用明白无误的明说表达出自己的意图；而从交际对象的角度看，交际又是一种推理的过程。这里的所谓“推理”，指听话人从说话人用明示手
49、段提供的信息中推断出说话人暗含的意图。说话人话语的明示过程实际上提出了一个供听话人推理的认知环境。例如：A:Do you like rugby(橄榄球运动）?B:I am a New Zealander.,2)Presumption of optimal relevance交际双方之所以能配合默契，主要由于有一个最佳的认知模式-关联性。要认知，就要找关联，要找关联，就要思辨、推理。Three definitions of relevance:1.An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextua
50、l effect in the context.当且仅当一个设想在一种语境中具有语境效应时，这个设想在这个语境中才具有关联性。A:Come and have a drink this evening.B:Im afraid I have to go to a meeting.,But relevance is a comparative concept.Some assumptions may be more relevant than others.They have improved on the definition by adopting an extent-condition(程度条
