词义关系和语义场汇总课件.ppt

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1、第六章 词义关系和语义场(Sense Relations and Semantic Field),第一节 词义关系(Sense Relations),词义之间并不是孤立存在的,是相互联系的。词义之间的关系是多样的,本章将讨论五种语义关系:多义关系(Polysemy)、同形同音异义关系(Homonymy)、同义关系(Synonymy)、反义关系(Antonymy)、和下义关系(Hyponymy)。,一、多义关系(Polysemy),词同时具备两种或两种以上的意义称为多义词(polysemic words)。一词多义是一种语言特征,是词义变化的结果。如manuscript一词原指手写的东西,即手稿

2、,现泛指作者的原稿,不论是手写的还是打字的。一词多义可以从历时与共时的角度加以分析。,1、历时方法(Diachronic approach)从历时角度讲,一词多义是词义发展变化的结果,当词产生时所赋予的意义,称为原始意义(primary meaning),也就是词的基本意义;在语言发展过程中,词形成的意义称为派生意义(derived meaning)。随着社会的发展,语言也发生变化,词义会出现分化,有的词原始意义可能丧失,被派生意义代替。如 pen 的原始意义是“羽毛”,harvest原指“秋天”,但在现在的词义中已经完全看不到一点儿痕迹了。有的词的原始意义与派生意义则同时在现代英语中保存了下

3、来。如:play的原始意义为“操练”或“活动”,而它的派生意义(剧本、戏剧、表演、玩耍、游戏、消遣等)比原始意义用得更多。,2、共时方法(Synchronic approach)从共时角度讲,一词多义是指在一特定的历史时期,一个词有多种意义。一个词的基本意义是词义的中心意义(central meaning),以此为中心引申出的意义称为次要意义(secondary meaning)。中心意义居于中心位置,次要意义好比辐条一样环绕着它,这种现象称之为词义的辐射(radiation)。如 head 一词,中心意义为part of a body(身体的部分),次要意义如下:)the top of an

4、ything(一切事物的顶部)the highest or uppermost part of a thing(最前面的部分)a leader(首脑,首长)the head of a coin(头像),)the source of a stream,spring(源头,源泉)the hydraulic sense(水头)promontory(海角;山岬)8)an army force,a troop(一支部队,现废弃不用)9)a unit of counting(牛等等的头数)10)a person or individual(人,个人)11)the main points(要点)12)men

5、tal power(才智),二、同形同音异义关系(Homonymy)(一)同形同音异义词指形或音同而意义不同的词。1、同形异音异义词(homographs)形同而音和义不同的词叫同形异音异义词。例如:,2、同音异形异义词(homophones)同音异形异义词指发音相同而形和义不同的词。例如:,2、同音异义词(homophones)同音异义词指发音相同而形和义不同的词。例如,3、完全同音同形异义词(perfect homonyms),完全同音同形异义词指形和音同而义不同的词。,同形或同音异义词形成的原因如下:1)词的语音和拼写变化(change in sound and spelling)两个词

6、在语言发展初词源不同,发音不同,后随着语言的发展形成音同义不同的词。如lang-long,langianlong。2)词源的不同(borrowing)词源不同也是形成同形同音异义的原因。如,flour源出古法语flor,指花,又来自拉丁语flos,指“麦子的最精细部分”(The finest part of wheat)。而在现代英语中flower 和flour 在词典中是两个不同的词。3)词语的缩略(shortening)英语中运用缩略法创造了不少新词与原有的词构成同形成同音异义词。如ad.由advertisement缩略而成,指“广告”,与add构成同音异义词。pop由popular缩略而

7、成,指“流行的”,也指“流行音乐会”等,与pop(v.突然出现)构成同形同音异义词。,(二)如何区别一词多义和同音同形异义完全同音同形异义词和多义词在拼写和读音上是相同的,因此两者有如何区别的问题。同音同形异义词和多义词的基本区别是前者指在形式上偶尔相同但并不是一个词的词,而后者指具有几个可区别义项的同一个词。两者之间的一个重要区别标准是看它们的词源。同音同形异义词的词源不同,而多义词是一个起源,但在词义发展过程中产生了不同的意义。第二个重要标准是语义是否相关。多义词的词义与原始意义多少都有关联,如head。而同音同形异义词的词义是互不相关的。在词典中多义词是列在同一个词条之下的,而同音同形异

8、义词则列入不同的词条。,三、同义关系(Synonymy)词与词之间表示同一意义或概念,这些词称为同义词(synonyms),也就是说同一意义或概念,可以用一个以上的词表示,如head,ruler,leader都可以指“领导”,这就是同义现象(synonymy),这样的词叫同义词。几乎所有的词都有同义词。(一)同义词的来源(sources of synonyms)英语中同义词十分丰富,这是英语发展的几个世纪中巧妙结合了其它语言,如盎格鲁-撒克逊语、法语、拉丁语和希腊语。有的结合成一对(doublets),有的组成三词一组(triplets)。例如成对的同义词有:,Native words Bor

9、rowed wordsbodily corporalhomely domesticanswer replywarlike bellicosebuy purchaseheavenly celestialhelp aidinner internalsharp acuteworld universe,三词一组的同义词有:English French Latinask question interrogateend finish concludefire flame conflagrationfear terror trepidationgoodness virtue probityholy sacr

10、ed consecratedrise mount ascend time age epoch,(二)同义词的类型(Types of synonyms)意义完全一样,用法完全相同的词叫做完全同义词(absolute synonyms),在英语中完全同义词是很少见的。大多在一些专门术语中。例如scarlet feverscarlatinacaecitistyphlitisword-formationword-buildingfricativespirant,英语中也有不少同义词是由英国英语词语和美国英语词语构成的。例如:,British English American call box tele

11、phone boothcoach buschemist druggistlift elevatorgarage service stationpetrol gasolinehire purchase installment planrailway railroadpavement sidewalktube subwayvest undershirt方言也提供了一些同义词。例如:liquorwhiskeygirllass,lassiecharmglamourrailwayrailroad,词的比喻用法也增添了同义occupationwalk of lifeliedistort the factd

12、reamerstar-gazerthe creepspins and needles除此,一些固定词组往往有单个词与它们同义 gain the upper handwinlend one a handhelpgo on withcontinuesellouttreacheryput offpostponegive upabandongain the upper handwinlend one a handhelpgo on withcontinuesell-outtreacheryput offpostponegive upabandon,英语中存在大部分相对同义词(relative syno

13、nyms),也就是意义相同或相似,用法不同的词。可以从以下几个方面区别相对同义词和绝对同义词:(1)意义的细微差别(in shade of meaning)pull,drag,haul这一组同义词是相对同义词,均指用力移动某物,尤其指物在人后,但也有细微差别,pull用途最广,兼有这一组中所有其它动词的意义,车辆、动物或人拉动任何可移动的物体均可使用pull,drag和haul指所拉者为重物,通常为在地面上移动,drag暗指具较大摩擦力,haul常表示拖拉或提升重物,尤指使用绳索。(2)文体意义方面(in stylistic meaning)to die,to pass away,和to ki

14、ck the bucket是一组相对同义词。die是这一组中最简单的,是中性词。to pass away是委婉语,用于正式文体。to kick the bucket是俚语,用于非正式场合。(3)感情色彩方面(in emotive meaning)Negro,nigger和black这一组相对同义词在感情色彩上不同。Negro是中性词,nigger是贬义词,作轻蔑语,black是褒义词。,(4)运用范围方面(in range of use)about和on这一组相对同义词均意为“关于”。在关于中国的艺术、教育或历史前期的书籍、电影或演讲中,用on意味着具有严肃的学术性的内容。在关于中国学校或恐龙

15、的书籍、讨论会或电视节目中用about则具有一般性和通俗性。(5)搭配方面(in collocation)一些相对同义词只能与一些特定词搭配。rancid和addled这一对形容词,都形容“不新鲜的”,但是rancid搭配bacon和batter,addled形容eggs和brains.(6)英式和美式用法方面(in British and American usages)在美式英语中,sick指“不适”或“身体不好”,在英式英语中,sick和ill均指“不适”或“身体不好”,ill用作表语、主语和动词之后,而sick用于名词之前,作定语时作ill解。The minister is sick.

16、(American English)He has been ill for a long time.(British English)She spent many years looking after her sick father.(British English),四、反义关系(Antonymy)词与词之间存在着相反或对立的语义关系,这种关系叫做反义关系(antonymy)。词义相反或对立的词叫反义词(antonyms)。(一)反义词的类型(types of antonyms)A.根据形态学分类(morphological classification)以形态学分类,反义词可以分为两组:

17、词根反义词和派生反义词。1)词根反义词(root antonyms)clearvaguelargesmallupdown2)派生反义词(derivative antonyms)pleasantunpleasantpoliteimpoliteformalinformallegitimateillegitimatehonestdishonestusefuluselessprewarpostwar,B.根据语义分类(semantic classification)根据语义对立反义词可以分为:矛盾反义词、对立反义词和关系反义词。1)矛盾反义词(contradictory terms)两个词的词义绝对对

18、立,互相否定,中间无过渡阶段,无等级之分,这样的一对反义词称为“矛盾反义”(contradictory terms),又称为“二元反义词”(binary antonyms)或“互补词(complementaries)”。例如:singlemarriedmalefemaledeadalive如果说John是not married,那么肯定是single;如果John是single,那么肯定是not married,非此即彼或非彼即此。总之,这类反义词具有两个明显特点:一个是语义之间互不包容,肯定一方就是否定另一方;另一个是没有级别性,不能用于比较级,也不能用副词very(“很”)修饰。2)对立反

19、义词(contrary terms)两个词的词义相对对立,中间有过渡有等级之分,这样的一对反义词称为“对立反义词”(contrary terms),又称为“可分级反义词”(gradable antonyms)。例如:richpooroldyoungbigsmallhighlowhotcold,以hot和cold这一对反义词来看,它们之间是有等级的,可用图形表示如下:中点,3)关系反义词(relational opposites)两个词在语义上表示对立关系,又表示相互依存的关系,即一方的存在以另一方的存在为前提,双方形成一个对立统一体。这叫做“关系反义词”,又称为“换位反义词”(conversi

20、ves)。例如:lendborrowhusbandwifeparentchildabovebelowteacherpupilIf A sells a watch to B,B buys a watch from A.If A lends a pen to B,B borrows a pen from B.If A is Bs husband,B is As wife.,(二)反义词的特点(characteristics of antonyms)反义词最基本的特点是语义对立,一个词的反义词并不能跟这个词所有的同义词构成反义关系。例如:good的反义词只能是bad,而不能是terrible,ter

21、rible的反义词是excellent。又如hot的反义词是cold,而不能是cool,cool的反义词是warm,因为它们的语义均是不同的。由于一词多义,往往一个词有许多反义词。hard(硬的)反义词是soft(软的),hard(困难的)和easy(容易的)是反义词,hard(硬心肠的)又和kind(善良的)是一对反义词。一些词的搭配不同,反义词也不同。如:fresh bread,fresh air,fresh newspaper,fresh flower,fresh heat,fresh water,fresh color,fresh hand,但是反义词是不同的,stale bread,

22、foul air,stale newspaper,faded flower,frozen meat,salt water,faded color和 old hand.英语中反义词往往一个是有标记的(marked),一个是无标记的(unmarked)。在许多反义词中,我们可以发现一个词义比另外一个更具体。例如:man(unmarked)和woman(marked),dog(unmarked)和bitch(marked)。我们可以说How old are you?和How long is it?却不能说 How young are you?或 How short is it?同一个词义也可以同时有

23、两个反义词,一个是完全否定的,一个是语义对立的。例如happy便有两个反义词unproductive和destructive。同样,productive也有两个反义词unproductive和destructive,free的反义词是unfree和enslaved.应当指出,并非所有的词都有反义词。,(三)反义词的应用(use of antonyms)研究反义词在学习英语中是很重要的。研究反义词可以帮助我们清楚地辨别词义和反义词。英语的成语和谚语中有许多反义词,形成强烈对比。例如:More haste,less speed.To save time is to lengthen life.Ev

24、ery tide hath(has)its ebb.Adversity leads to prosperity.许多著名作者喜欢在文章中使用反义词,下面的一连串反义词造成了强烈的修辞效果:“It was the best of times,it was the worst times,it was the age of window,it was the age of foolishness,it was the epoch of belief,it was the epoch of incredulity,it was the season of Light,it was the seaso

25、n of Darkness,it was the spring of hope,it was the winter of despair,we had everything before us,we had nothing before us,we were all going direct to Heaven,we were all going direct the other way-in short,the period was so far like the present period,that some of its noisest authorities insuted on i

26、ts being received for good or for evil,in the superlative degree of comparison only.”-Charles Dickens,五、下义关系(Hyponymy)上下义关系研究的是语义内包(semantic inclusion)关系,也就是个别概念的词内包在表示一般概念的词中,如tulip包含在flower中,lion包含在animal中,hammer包含在tool中,tulip,lion,hammer这些词叫做下义词(hyponyms or subordinate terms);flower,animals,tool这

27、些词叫上义词(hyponyms or superordinate terms).上义词和下义词是相对而言的。可以用树形结构表示,例如:,animal对sheep等词来说是上义词,但animal与plant又变成living的下义词。sheep也可转为上义词,其下义词为ram,ewe,lamb.,第二节 语义场(Semantic Field)“语义场”这个理论最早是由德国语言学家特里尔(Jost Trier)在二十世纪三十年代初提出来的。语义场就是同一词类的词由于它们之间的紧密联系而形成一个词汇体系,这些词具有共同的语义成分,还具有各种非共同语义成分。按照区别性特征的不同,语义场可以分为同义、近

28、义、类义、反义等几种。多种语言的语义场数目大致相同,例如:“亲属场”、“水果场”(包括apple,pear,peach,apricot,date,mango,pineapple,orange,lemon,watermelon等)、“颜色场”(包括red,orange,yellow,green,white,black,blue,purple,pink,brown等)等,但是对于同一种事物不同的语言分类不同,例如汉语中表示亲属关系的词要考虑年幼年长、父母关系,因此表示数量很多。而英语相对简单,仅用father,mother,son,daughter,brother,sister,uncle,aun

29、t,nephew,niece,cousin,husband,wife和great,grand,step,half,first,second,in-law就可以反映所有的变分、同胞、血缘关系。语言的词汇是不断变化的,旧词消失,新词出现,当新词取代旧词时,它的内在关系也会发生变化。,Sense relations refer to the relations of related words in sense.They include polysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonymy and hyponymy.Polysemy is a language feature wh

30、ich tells us that one single word can have two or more meanings at the same time.It has two approaches:diachronic approach and synchronic approach.Diachronic approach:From this point of view,polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word

31、.When the word was created,it was endowed with only one meaning,that is the primary meaning.With the development of language,it took on more and more meaning,which are called derived meaning.Synchronic approach:Synchronically,polysemy is viewed as the co-exsistence of various meanings of the same wo

32、rd in a certain historical period of time.The basic meaning of a word is the core of the word-meaning called central meaning.The derived meanings are secondary meaning.Two processes of development:radiation and concatenation.Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the

33、center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays.,Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts.Each of the later meaning is related to the proceeding one like chains.Homonymy is a lan

34、guage feature which tells that words are identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Homonyms can fall into three classes:perfect homonyms,homographs and homophones.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning,e.g.Bank(of Ch

35、ina)-the bank of the river.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning,e.g.bow bau-bEu.Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning,e.g.dear-deer.Synonymy is a language feature which tells that words are different in sound

36、and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.Synonyms can fall into two groups:absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.Absolute synonyms(complete synonyms)are words identical in meaning in all its aspects,e.g.scarlet-fever-scarlatina.Relative synonyms(near-synonyms)are words sim

37、ilar or nearly the same in denotation,but embracing different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality,e.g.large huge tremendous colossal.Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms can fall into three major classes:contradictory terms,contrary terms and relative terms.C

38、ontradictory terms:These antonyms represent oppositeness of meaning.Features:1)They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them.The assertion of one is the denial of the other.E.g.dead/alive,present/absent,male/female,same/different.2)They are

39、non-gradable.They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.E.g.single/married.*very/more/most single.,Contrary terms:These antonyms are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.They represent two points at both

40、 ends of pole.They are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.E.g.rich/poor,old/young,and big/small.And between them we can add respectively well-to-do,middle-aged and medium-sized.Relative terms:This type consists of relational opposites.They indicate such a reciprocal social relation

41、ship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other.This type also includes reverse terms,which comprise adjectives and adverbs signifying a quality,or verbs and nouns signifying an act or state that reverse the quality,action or state of the other.E.g.parent/child,husband/wife,predece

42、ssor/successor,employer/employee,sell/buy and give/receive.Hyponyny:It deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.These general words are hyperonyms(or superordinate terms).And these specific words ar

43、e hyponyms(or subordinate terms).E.g.tulip/flower,lion/animal,and hammer/tool.Semantic field:Vocabulary is an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense and the words of language can be classified in semantically related sets or field,that is,semantic field.The vocabulary of a language is in constant change;old items drop out,new items come in,and as the new replace the old,so the internal relations of the whole set alter.A simple and familiar example of this is one corner of the personal address system in modern English:Miss/Mrs/Ms/Mr.,

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