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1、SiD Calorimeter R&D ReportI. Overview of SiD Calorimeter R&D.The ILC physics program places strong requirements on the performance of calorimeter systems. Many production channels to be studied require efficient identification and separation of jets in multi-jet final states (e.g. in e+e- t tbar 6 j
2、ets), and the measurement of jet energies and jet-jet invariant masses with unprecedented precision. Our goal is to measure jet energies at the level of /E 3-4%. Event-by-event separation of hadronic decays of W- and Z-bosons and Higgs particles will be necessary to measure cross-sections and branch
3、ing ratios at the few percent level of error. The calorimeter system is a critical element of the SiD detector concept design for achieving these goals. The calorimeter will also provide excellent electromagnetic energy resolution and efficient 0 reconstruction, charged hadron/photon shower separati
4、on, and tau lepton reconstruction. The SiD detector design is based on an all-silicon tracking system which allows for a limited inner radius for the central calorimeter system. This, in turn, constrains the cost of the silicon-tungsten electromagnetic calorimeter, and limits the outer radius of the
5、 hadron calorimeter, thereby also constraining the size and cost of the superconducting coil. It is taken as a basic design parameter that both the electromagnetic and hadron calorimeters should lie inside the coil so as not to degrade their abilities to make particle-energy cluster associations. A
6、schematic view of part of the SiD concept is shown in Fig.1, which indicates the dimensions and location of central and endcap components of the calorimeter system. Fig. 1 Quadrant view of the SiD detector design concept.The forward calorimeter systems for SiD will be covered in a separate report by
7、 the FCal collaboration, and so are not discussed here.A promising approach for achieving the unprecendented jet energy resolution lies in the use of a Particle Flow Algorithm (PFA). We have invested considerable time and effort in the development of such algorithm(s), and in understanding the impli
8、cations of a PFA for the SiD detector design. This approach uses the tracking system to measure the energy of the charged hadron component of a jet and the electromagnetic calorimeter to measure photon energies. Accordingly, the neutral hadron energy is the only component of jets to be measured dire
9、ctly in the hadron calorimeter. Leakage from the rear of the hadron calorimeter could be estimated by the use of a “tail-catcher”, which would also be the first part of the muon system. The measurement of jet energies using data from several subsystems leads to a very integrated view of the design o
10、f the SiD detector. The tracker must find the charged particles with high efficiency and ensure accurate projection of the tracks into the calorimeter to make the correct track/energy cluster associations. The electromagnetic calorimeter must be sufficiently fine grained to provide efficient charged
11、 particle/photon shower separation. The hadron calorimeter must be sufficiently fine grained to allow efficient track following for charged hadrons and their hadronic shower products, and to provide an approximately linear hits vs. energy for the digital hadron calorimeter case.Simulations of PFA pe
12、rformance for light jet production at the Z-pole are beginning to show excellent performance. Intense work is underway to optimize the algorithms for the higher jet energies expected for higher center of mass energies. Prudence suggests we also remain open to the investigation of more traditional ca
13、lorimetry or more radical, alternative ideas. In the PFA approach, the electromagnetic energy resolution does not impose limits on jet energy resolution: the current Si-W design is expected to have an electromagnetic shower resolution of 17%/E. However, the segmentation, both longitudinal and transv
14、erse, is a critical consideration for the use of PFAs for hadronic jets. Transversely, not only should the effective Moliere radius be kept small, but also the transverse cell size should be about half of this radius. Longitudinally, the active gap between absorber layers should be kept small to ach
15、ieve a small effective Moliere radius, limiting transverse shower spread. A sufficient number of longitudinal layers need to be provided to contain electromagnetic showers and allow efficient recognition and reconstruction of these showers. The resulting highly segmented electromagnetic calorimeter,
16、 in addition to having the correct characteristics for use with PFAs, will then have outstanding performance for the reconstruction of electrons, photons, and tau leptons and for tracking charged hadrons and muons.The choice of the silicon-tungsten combination for the electromagnetic calorimeter is
17、a centerpiece of the original SiD design. The Moliere radius for tungsten is 9mm, and our present design has a pixel area of 12mm2. Longitudinally, there are 30 alternating layers of tungsten and silicon giving a total thickness at normal incidence of 29X0. The goal for the active gaps is 1mm width
18、or less. Each group of approximately 1000 silicon pixels is read out via one KPiX-ASIC mounted on the wafer. The first version of the silicon wafers have been delivered and evaluated. The medium-term plan is to assemble a prototype calorimeter section based on the second generation silicon wafers in
19、 conjunction with the 1024-channel KPiX readout. The electromagnetic calorimeter is discussed in detail in Section II.The KPiX ASIC is being developed for the readout of the electromagnetic calorimeter, and the central silicon tracker for SiD, and has applicability to several technology options for
20、the hadron calorimeter. The high energy density for electromagnetic showers requires a large dynamic range for the readout. The KPiX chip uses a novel method by which the feedback path on the front end amplifier can be switched between two capacitors, switching in the large (10 pF) capacitor only wh
21、en it is required. This allows the amplified charge for smaller input signals to be well above the noise. There is an event threshold, which can hold off bunch crossing resets in order to allow a fairly long integration time of 1 ms. The calculated noise level is about 1000 electrons, to be compared
22、 with a MIP signal charge of 25 times this. Charge digitization uses two overlapping 12-bit scales. The chip also allows up to four hits per bunch train to be stored for each pixel. Several prototype versions of KPiX have been fabricated and tested, with encouraging results for the present 64-channe
23、l version. A version of a 64-channel KPiX has also been developed to read out the gas electron multiplier based version of the hadron calorimeter active layers. Details of the KPiX development are given in section III.The hadron calorimeter in our PFA-oriented, baseline design consists of 35-40 laye
24、rs of alternating absorber plates and active sampling gaps. The critical feature of this calorimeter is the small transverse cell size, O(1-3cm), required for the imaging requirements imposed by a PFA. Depending on the approach taken, this device could be analog, semi-digital, or fully digital. Ther
25、e is a premium on a small active gap size as this has a large impact on the overall detector cost. The full depth of the baseline hadron calorimeter is 4I. The basic mechanical structure is foreseen to have three main sections: a barrel and two endcaps. The barrel is subdivided along the beam direct
26、ion into three sections, and there are twelve modules in azimuth.The baseline material choice for the absorber is steel, although we have also considered tungsten and brass, with plates having thickness of 20mm or 1.1 X0. In contrast four technologies, three gaseous and one plastic, are under consid
27、eration for the active layers of the hadron calorimeter. These range from resistive plate chambers, gas electron multipliers, and micromegas for digital implementations, to small scintillator tiles for semi-digital and analog implementations. Prototypes of each technology have been built and evaluat
28、ed. We have had extensive discussions on the process for selection of the best technology for the SiD hadron calorimeter. We have enumerated a set of requirements for the calorimeter and selection criteria for the technologies, and the steps that should be followed to reach a decision. These require
29、ments and criteria incorporate the demands of PFAs. For instance, our PFA studies are now focusing on center-of-mass energies beyond the Z-pole, and consequently, higher energy, more collimated, jets. This helps us understand the requirement for the transverse cell size. Also our simulations have hi
30、ghlighted the pros and cons of neutron detection. The issue is whether we gain in the PFAs from the use of scintillator to see neutron clusters, or whether it is better to use a gas active medium to suppress the neutron signal and thereby simplify the track-cluster association in the PFA. Also at is
31、sue is the comparative ease of construction and cost differences between the various technologies. A full discussion of the hadron calorimeter is given in Section IV. The option of installing a “tail-catcher” after the 1.5 I of the superconducting coil and cryostat, to potentially identify and measu
32、re the last few percent of hadron shower energies, is under discussion. Recent prototype results from CALICE data taking at CERN show improved energy resolution when the tail-catcher data is included. The technology for implementation of the tail-catcher would follow that of the muon system: current
33、ly scintillator strips and resistive plate chambers are being considered. The tail-catcher is also discussed in Section IV. Basic simulation studies of hadron calorimetry are being carried out in the SiD context. The parameters studied include the absorber material, the active layer material, the lo
34、ngitudinal and transverse segmentation, the total thickness of the hadron section, the thickness (I) per layer, the inner radius, and the magnetic field. The idea is to work from a basic understanding of single particle energy resolutions, through jets of known energy(s), to full dijet mass resoluti
35、on in physics events. The single particle studies already reveal interesting and significant differences in energy resolution between the combinations of steel and tungsten absorber and scintillator and gas active media that will be essential input to decisions on the hadron calorimeter. Studies of
36、jet energy resolutions and neutral energy measurement are ongoing. Section V discusses this simulation work.Initially the study and development of PFAs for SiD was undertaken by a number of independent physicists at several different locations. In order to bring some structure into these studies, an
37、d provide a common basis for comparison of algorithms within the various PFAs, a framework has been produced by a collaboration between SLAC and ANL. Initial studies for SiD, as for the other concepts, have focused on the Z-pole region. Based on physics processes requiring the separability of W and
38、Z bosons, the initial goal for the PFAs was set at achieving an energy resolution at the Z-pole of /E 30%/E. However, more recent considerations particularly at higher center-of-mass energies have revised this goal to /E 3-4%. The current state-of-the-art for SiD PFAs is /E 35%/E. We are approaching
39、 the level of understanding of the PFA performance that will provide the basis for meaningful comparisons of technology choices for the hadron calorimeter, DAQ, fiber cables, data rates?Backgrounds in the electromagnetic calorimeter, mainly low energy photons from the beamcal, and photons from gamma
40、-gamma interactions, produce an occupancy rate of at most 1 x 10-4/BX in the highly segmented silicon pixel detectors. This should be an inconsequential effect in calorimeter pattern recognition, and the electronic buffer size is more than adequate to ensure full efficiency. We are forming a SiD Eng
41、ineering Group, with initial participants from SLAC and Fermilab, to carry out a preliminary engineering study of the SiD detector design. This study will consider the basic design of the calorimeter modules, materials, support of the barrel and endcap calorimeters and the superconducting coil, asse
42、mbly procedures and magnetic force effects .This generic study will assume a calorimeter inside the coil and active gaps of order 1cm.Stability, calibration, push-pull ?In this report, we present the electromagnetic calorimeter and its readout in detail. For the hadron, we summarize the R&D relevant
43、 to the SiD calorimeter design and technology selection. The details of the hadron calorimeter and TCMT R&D will be discussed in the CALICE report submitted to this review. We include a section on basic simulation studies as these offer valuable insight into the relative importance of various materi
44、als and size parameters for the calorimeter design. Finally, we summarize the results from SiD-based PFA studies that also bear on the optimization of this design.II. Electromagnetic Calorimeter1. IntroductionWe expect pattern recognition to be critical for identifying and quantifying final states,
45、which may include hints of new physics in complicated high-energy events at the ILC. A dense, imaging ECal will have excellent capabilities for identifying and measuring EM showers in three dimensions, for separating these from other particles, for tracking charged particles in the ECal, and for ide
46、ntifying charged and neutral hadrons which begin showering in the (1 interaction length) ECal. In addition to its critical usefulness for reconstruction of hadronic final states using the PFA, as discussed in Section I, a highly-segmented, imaging ECal such as we propose will have important advantag
47、es for carrying out other critical elements of the broad ILC physics program. We outline some of these benefits in the next section.Hence, the silicon-tungsten (Si-W) ECal we propose is not only a necessary element of a detector which uses PFA methods for jet reconstruction, but its general ability
48、to aid in the identification and measurement of many types of particles by direct identification or by reconstruction of individual decay products makes, we believe, a dense, imaging ECal the optimal choice for a multi-purpose ILC detector. The main questions are (1) can we afford it? and (2) is the
49、re a technological solution? The answer to the first question may depend on the eventual cost of silicon sensors. Nevertheless, our goal is to design an excellent instrument for exploring and quantifying new physics, but with constrained costs. We believe we have found a positive response to the second questions using the Si-W technology which we discuss in Section 3.Table
