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1、,Karl Marx 1844,Economic&Philosophic,Manuscripts of 18441,Written:Between April and August 1844;First Published:1932;,Source:Marx.Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844;First Published:Progress Publishers,Moscow 1959;,Translated:by Martin Milligan from the German text,revised by Dirk J.Struik,
2、contained inMarx/Engels,Gesamtausgabe,Abt.1,Bd.3.Corrections were made of typographical errors andthe authors obvious slips when preparing the Russian edition,1956;Transcribed:in 2000 for marxists.org by Andy Blunden;Proofed:and corrected by Matthew Carmody,2009.,Preface,|XXXIX|I have already announ
3、ced in the Deutsch-Franzsische Jahrbcher the critique ofjurisprudence and political science in the form of a critique of the Hegelian philosophy of law.While preparing it for publication,the intermingling of criticism directed only against speculationwith criticism of the various subjects themselves
4、 proved utterly unsuitable,hampering thedevelopment of the argument and rendering comprehension difficult.Moreover,the wealth anddiversity of the subjects to be treated could have been compressed into one work only in a purelyaphoristic style;whilst an aphoristic presentation of this kind,for its pa
5、rt,would have given theimpression of arbitrary systematism.I shall therefore publish the critique of law,ethics,politics,etc.,in a series of distinct,independent pamphlets,and afterwards try in a special work to presentthem again as a connected whole showing the interrelationship of the separate par
6、ts,and lastlyattempt a critique of the speculative elaboration of that material.For this reason it will be foundthat the interconnection between political economy and the state,law,ethics,civil life,etc.,istouched upon in the present work only to the extent to which political economy itself expressl
7、ytouches upon these subjects.,It is hardly necessary to assure the reader conversant with political economy that my results havebeen attained by means of a wholly empirical analysis based on a conscientious critical study ofpolitical economy.,(Whereas the uninformed reviewer who tries to hide his co
8、mplete ignorance and intellectualpoverty by hurling the“utopian phrase”at the positive critics head,or again such phrases as“quite pure,quite resolute,quite critical criticism,”the“not merely legal but social utterly,social society”,the“compact,massy mass”,the“outspoken spokesmen of the massy mass”2
9、,this reviewer has yet to furnish the first proof that besides his theological family affairs he hasanything to contribute to a discussion of worldly matters.),It goes without saying that besides the French and English socialists I have also used Germansocialist works.The only original German works
10、of substance in this science,however otherthan Weitlings writings are the essays by Hess published in Einundzwanzig Bogen3 andUmrisse zu einer Kritik der Nationalkonomie by Engels in the Deutsch-FranzsischeJahrbcher,where also the basic elements of this work Economic and Philosophic Manuscriptsof 18
11、44 have been indicated by me in a very general way.,(Besides being indebted to these authors who have given critical attention to political economy,positive criticism as a whole and therefore also German positive criticism of political economy owes its true foundation to the discoveries of Feuerbach
12、,against whose Philosophie der Zukunft,2,Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844.Preface,and Thesen zur Reform der Philosophie in the Anekdota,despite the tacit use that is made ofthem,the petty envy of some and the veritable wrath of others seem to have instigated a regularconspiracy of silenc
13、e.,It is only with Feuerbach that positive,humanistic and naturalistic criticism begins.The lessnoise they make,the more certain,profound,extensive,and enduring is the effect of Feuerbachswritings,the only writings since Hegels Phnomenologie and Logik to contain a real theoreticalrevolution.,In cont
14、rast to the critical theologian of our day,I have deemed the concluding chapter of thiswork a critical discussion of Hegelian dialectic and philosophy as a whole to be absolutelynecessary,|XL|a task not yet performed.This lack of thoroughness is not accidental,since eventhe critical theologian remai
15、ns a theologian.Hence,either he has to start from certainpresuppositions of philosophy accepted as authoritative;or,if in the process of criticism and as aresult of other peoples discoveries doubts about these philosophical presuppositions have arisenin him,he abandons them in a cowardly and unwarra
16、ntable fashion,abstracts from them,thusshowing his servile dependence on these presuppositions and his resentment at this servilitymerely in a negative,unconscious and sophistical manner.,(He does this either by constantly repeating assurances concerning the purity of his own criticism,or by trying
17、to make it seem as though all that was left for criticism to deal with now was someother limited form of criticism outside itself say eighteenth-century criticism and also thelimitations of the masses,in order to divert the observers attention as well as his own from thenecessary task of settling ac
18、counts between criticism and its point of origin Hegelian dialecticand German philosophy as a whole that is,from this necessary raising of modern criticismabove its own limitation and crudity.Eventually,however,whenever discoveries(such asFeuerbachs)are made regarding the nature of his own philosoph
19、ic presuppositions,the criticaltheologian partly makes it appear as if he were the one who had accomplished this,producing thatappearance by taking the results of these discoveries and,without being able to develop them,hurling them in the form of catch-phrases at writers still caught in the confine
20、s of philosophy.Hepartly even manages to acquire a sense of his own superiority to such discoveries by asserting in amysterious way and in a veiled,malicious and skeptical fashion elements of the Hegeliandialectic which he still finds lacking in the criticism of that dialectic(which have not yet bee
21、ncritically served up to him for his use)against such criticism not having tried to bring suchelements into their proper relation or having been capable of doing so,asserting,say,the categoryof mediating proof against the category of positive,self-originating truth,.in a way peculiar toHegelian dial
22、ectic.For to the theological critic it seems quite natural that everything has to bedone by philosophy,so that he can chatter away about purity,resoluteness,and quite criticalcriticism;and he fancies himself the true conqueror of philosophy whenever he happens to feel,some element4 in Hegel to be la
23、cking in Feuerbach for however much he practices the spiritual,idolatry of“self-consciousness”and“mind”the theological critic does not get beyond feeling toconsciousness.),On close inspection theological criticism genuinely progressive though it was at the inceptionof the movement is seen in the fin
24、al analysis to be nothing but the culmination and consequenceof the old philosophical,and especially the Hegelian,transcendentalism,twisted into atheological caricature.This interesting example of historical justice,which now assigns totheology,ever philosophys spot of infection,the further role of
25、portraying in itself the negativedissolution of philosophy,i.e.,the process of its decay this historical nemesis I shall,demonstrate on another occasion.5,(How far,on the other hand,Feuerbachs discoveries about the nature of philosophy still,fortheir proof at least,called for a critical discussion o
26、f philosophical dialectic will be seen from myexposition itself.)|XL|,First Manuscript,Wages of Labor,Wages are determined through the antagonistic struggle between capitalist and worker.Victorygoes necessarily to the capitalist.The capitalist can live longer without the worker than can theworker wi
27、thout the capitalist.Combination among the capitalists is customary and effective;workers combination is prohibited and painful in its consequences for them.Besides,thelandowner and the capitalist can make use of industrial advantages to augment their revenues;theworker has neither rent nor interest
28、 on capital to supplement his industrial income.Hence theintensity of the competition among the workers.Thus only for the workers is the separation ofcapital,landed property,and labour an inevitable,essential and detrimental separation.Capitaland landed property need not remain fixed in this abstrac
29、tion,as must the labor of the workers.The separation of capital,rent,and labor is thus fatal for the worker.,The lowest and the only necessary wage rate is that providing for the subsistence of the workerfor the duration of his work and as much more as is necessary for him to support a family and fo
30、rthe race of laborers not to die out.The ordinary wage,according to Smith,is the lowest,compatible with common humanity6,that is,with cattle-like existence.,The demand for men necessarily governs the production of men,as of every other commodity.Should supply greatly exceed demand,a section of the w
31、orkers sinks into beggary or starvation.The workers existence is thus brought under the same condition as the existence of every othercommodity.The worker has become a commodity,and it is a bit of luck for him if he can find abuyer.And the demand on which the life of the worker depends,depends on th
32、e whim of the richand the capitalists.Should supply exceed demand,then one of the constituent parts of the price profit,rent or wages is paid below its rate,a part of these factors is therefore withdrawn fromthis application,and thus the market price gravitates towards the natural price as the cente
33、r-point.But(1)where there is considerable division of labor it is most difficult for the worker todirect his labor into other channels;(2)because of his subordinate relation to the capitalist,he isthe first to suffer.,Thus in the gravitation of market price to natural price it is the worker who lose
34、s most of all andnecessarily.And it is just the capacity of the capitalist to direct his capital into another channelwhich either renders the worker,who is restricted to some particular branch of labor,destitute,orforces him to submit to every demand of this capitalist.,The accidental and sudden flu
35、ctuations in market price hit rent less than they do that part of theprice which is resolved into profit and wages;but they hit profit less than they do wages.In mostcases,for every wage that rises,one remains stationary and one falls.,The worker need not necessarily gain when the capitalist does,bu
36、t he necessarily loses when,the latter loses.Thus,the worker does not gain if the capitalist keeps the market price above thenatural price by virtue of some manufacturing or trading secret,or by virtue of monopoly or thefavorable situation of his land.,Furthermore,the prices of labor are much more c
37、onstant than the prices of provisions.Often theystand in inverse proportion.In a dear year wages fall on account of the decrease in demand,butrise on account of the increase in the prices of provisions and thus balance.In any case,anumber of workers are left without bread.In cheap years wages rise o
38、n account of the rise indemand,but decrease on account of the fall in the prices of provisions and thus balance.Another respect in which the worker is at a disadvantage:,4,Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844.First Manuscript,The labor prices of the various kinds of workers show much wider d
39、ifferences than the profits,in the various branches in which capital is applied.In labor all the natural,spiritual,and socialvariety of individual activity is manifested and is variously rewarded,whilst dead capital alwayskeeps the same pace and is indifferent to real individual activity.,In general
40、 we should observe that in those cases where worker and capitalist equally suffer,theworker suffers in his very existence,the capitalist in the profit on his dead mammon.,The worker has to struggle not only for his physical means of subsistence;he has to struggle toget work,i.e.,the possibility,the
41、means,to perform his activity.,Let us take the three chief conditions in which society can find itself and consider the situation ofthe worker in them:,(1)If the wealth of society declines the worker suffers most of all,and for the following reason:although the working class cannot gain so much as c
42、an the class of property owners in aprosperous state of society,no one suffers so cruelly from its decline as the working class.(2)Let us now take a society in which wealth is increasing.This condition is the only onefavorable to the worker.Here competition between the capitalists sets in.The demand
43、 for workersexceeds their supply.But:,In the first place,the raising of wages gives rise to overwork among the workers.The more theywish to earn,the more must they sacrifice their time and carry out slave-labor,completely losingall their freedom,in the service of greed.Thereby they shorten their liv
44、es.This shortening of theirlife-span is a favorable circumstance for the working class as a whole,for as a result of it an ever-fresh supply of labor becomes necessary.This class has always to sacrifice a part of itself in ordernot to be wholly destroyed.,Furthermore:When does a society find itself
45、in a condition of advancing wealth?When thecapitals and the revenues of a country are growing.But this is only possible:,(a)As the result of the accumulation of much labor,capital being accumulated labor;as the result,therefore,of the fact that more and more of his products are being taken away from
46、 the worker,that to an increasing extent his own labor confronts him as another mans property and that themeans of his existence and his activity are increasingly concentrated in the hands of the capitalist.(b)The accumulation of capital increases the division of labor,and the division of labor incr
47、easesthe number of workers.Conversely,the number of workers increases the division of labor,just asthe division of labor increases the accumulation of capital.With this division of labor on the onehand and the accumulation of capital on the other,the worker becomes ever more exclusivelydependent on
48、labor,and on a particular,very one-sided,machine-like labor at that.Just as he isthus depressed spiritually and physically to the condition of a machine and from being a manbecomes an abstract activity and a belly,so he also becomes ever more dependent on everyfluctuation in market price,on the appl
49、ication of capital,and on the whim of the rich.Equally,theincrease in the class of people wholly dependent on work intensifies competition among theworkers,thus lowering their price.In the factory system this situation of the worker reaches itsclimax.,(c)In an increasingly prosperous society only th
50、e richest of the rich can continue to live onmoney interest.Everyone else has to carry on a business with his capital,or venture it in trade.Asa result,the competition between the capitalists becomes more intense.The concentration ofcapital increases,the big capitalists ruin the small,and a section
