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1、,sectoral studies series,T H E G L O B A L A P PA R E L VA L U E C H A I N:,What Prospects for Upgrading,by Developing Countries,UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION,economy environment employment,sectoral studies series,THE GLOBAL APPAREL VALUE CHAIN:,What Prospects for Upgrading,by D
2、eveloping Countries,Gary Gereffi,Department of Sociology,Duke University,Durham,USA,and,Olga Memedovic,UNIDO,Strategic Research and Economics Branch,UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION,Vienna,2003,This paper has not been formally edited.The views expressed therein,thedesignations empl
3、oyed as well as the presentation of material in this publication donot imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat ofthe United Nations Industrial Development Organization concerning the legal statusof any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or con
4、cerning thedelimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.,Designations such as“industrialized”,“developed”and“developing”countries areintended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement aboutthe stage reached by a particular country or area in the development process.Mentio
5、nof firm names or commercial products does not imply endorsement by UNIDO.Material in this paper may be freely quoted but acknowledgement is requested,together with a copy of the publication containing the quotation or reprint.,ii,Acknowledgement,This publication has been prepared by Gary Gereffi,De
6、partment ofSociology,Duke University,and Olga Memedovic,UNIDO staff memberfrom the Strategic Research and Economics Branch.Frdric Richard,Director of the Strategic Research and Economics Branch,provided overallguidance.UNIDO intern Arjan Stavast provided assistance.,The authors are grateful to Mr.Jo
7、hn-Peter Moll,UNIDO expert on textile andclothing,for providing his comments during the preparation of this paper.,Penelope Plowden and Georgina Wilde were the principal English languageeditors of the publication.Penny Butler was the copy-editor.,iii,Blank,iii,1,2,6,8,16,22,5,18,24,25,ContentsAcknow
8、ledgement,AbstractIntroductionGlobal value chainsBig buyers and global sourcingGlobal sourcing in apparelApparel sourcing in North AmericaEuropean and Japanese variations in apparel sourcing networksWorld market trendsConclusionReferencesTables,vii263133,Table 1Table 2Table 3,Trends in United States
9、 apparel imports by region and country,1983-2001Worlds 25 leading apparel exporters,1980,1990 and 2000Position of apparel among leading export items,1980-2000,102730,FiguresFigure 1 The apparel value chainFigure 2 Shifts in the regional structure of United States apparel imports,1990-2000Figure 3 Sh
10、ifts in the regional structure of European apparel imports,1990-2000Figure 4 Shifts in the regional structure of Japanese apparel imports,1990-2000v,1,Boxes,Box 1,International production systems,Box 2vi,WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing,12,Abstract,The paper uses the global value chain framewo
11、rk to explain thetransformations in production,trade and corporate strategies that altered theapparel industry over the past decades and changed the conditions forinnovation and learning in the industry.The apparel industry is identified as abuyer-driven value chain that contains three types of lead
12、 firms:retailers,marketers and branded manufacturers.With the globalization of apparelproduction,competition between the leading firms in the industry hasintensified as each type of lead firm has developed extensive global sourcingcapabilities.While“de-verticalizing”out of production,these firms are
13、fortifying their activities in the high value-added design and marketingsegments of the apparel chain,leading to a blurring of the boundariesbetween them and a realignment of interests within the chain.,Innovation in the global apparel value chain is primarily associated with theshift from assembly
14、to full-package production.Full-package productionchanges fundamentally the relationship between buyer and supplier givingmore autonomy to the supplying firm and creating more possibilities forinnovation and learning.,The paper distinguishes between three new models of competition in theNorth Americ
15、an market namely the East Asian,Mexican and CaribbeanBasin model.Each model presents different perspectives and challenges forindustrial innovation and learning.,vii,Blank,The Global Apparel Value Chain:What Prospects for Upgrading by Developing Countries?IntroductionThe purpose of this Although it
16、is generally accepted that the clothing industry played a leadingpaper role in East Asias early export growth,the degree to which internationaltrade can be the basis of sustained economic growth for developing countrieshas been questioned.Under what conditions can trade-based growth be avehicle for
17、genuine industrial upgrading,given the frequent criticisms of low-wage,low-skill,assembly-oriented export activities?Do Asiasaccomplishments in trade-led industrialization contain significant lessons forother regions of the world?This report will look at these and related questions,using a global va
18、lue chainframework.A value chain is the range of activities involved in the design,production and marketing of a product,although there is a critical distinctionbetween buyer-driven and producer-driven value chains.Japan in the 1950sand 1960s,the East Asian newly industrializing economies(NIEs)in th
19、e1970s and 1980s and China in the 1990s became world-class exportersprimarily by mastering the dynamics of buyer-driven value chains.,Box 1,International production systems,Assembly is a form of industrial subcontracting,in which garment sewingplants are provided with imported inputs for assembly,mo
20、st commonly inexport processing zones(EPZs).Original equipment manufacturing(OEM)is a form of commercialsubcontracting.The supplying firm makes a product according to a designspecified by the buyer;the product is sold under the buyers brand name;the supplier and buyer are separate firms;and the buye
21、r lacks control overdistribution.Original brand name manufacturing(OBM)is the upgrading bymanufacturers from the production expertise of OEM to first the designand then the sale of their own brand products.The key to East Asias success was the move from mere assembly ofimported inputs(traditionally
22、associated with export processing zones orEPZs)to a more domestically integrated and higher value-added form ofexporting known as full-package supply or OEM(original equipmentmanufacturing)production(see Box 1).(Throughout this report,OEMproduction,specification contracting and full-package supply w
23、ill be used asbroadly synonymous terms.In addition,assembly,production sharing andoutward processing refer to similar processes,even though a specific termmay be favoured in a particular region.)Japanese companies and some firmsin the East Asian NIEs moved on from OEM export to original brand namema
24、nufacturing(OBM),supplementing their production expertise with thedesign and then the sale of their own branded merchandise at home andabroad.The OEM model at the international level is a form of commercialsubcontracting in which the buyer-seller linkage between overseas buyers and11,The Global Appa
25、rel Value Chain:What Prospects for Upgrading by Developing Countries?,domestic manufacturers allows for a greater degree of local learning aboutthe upstream and downstream segments of the apparel chain.,East Asias ability to establish links with a wide range of lead firms in buyer-driven chains enab
26、led it to make the transition from assembly to full-packagesupply.Lead firms are the primary sources of material inputs,technologytransfer and knowledge.In the apparel value chain,different types of leadfirms use different networks and source from different parts of the world.Retailers and marketers
27、 in developed countries tend to rely on full-packagesourcing networks,buying ready-made apparel primarily from Asia,wheremanufacturers in Hong Kong(now named as Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region(SAR)of China),Taiwan Province of China and theRepublic of Korea historically specialized in this typ
28、e of production.But aswages have risen,multilayered sourcing networks have been developed;low-wage assembly can be done in other parts of Asia,Africa or Latin Americawhile the NIE manufacturers coordinate the full-package production process.Branded manufacturers,by contrast,tend to create production
29、 networks thatfocus on apparel assembly using imported inputs.Full-package sourcingnetworks are generally global and the production networks of brandedmanufacturers are predominantly regional.Manufacturers in the United Statesof America use Mexico and the Caribbean Basin,European Union(EU)firmslook
30、to North Africa and Eastern Europe,and Japan and the East Asian NIEsto lower-wage regions within Asia.,The organization First,the global value chain framework will be outlined,with emphasis onof the paper the structure and dynamics of buyer-driven chains.Second,the role of each,of the big buyers(ret
31、ailers,marketers and manufacturers)in forging globalsourcing networks in the apparel value chain is examined.Third,theevolution and upgrading of apparel sourcing networks in Asia are considered.Industrial upgrading in the Asian context is examined through the process ofbuilding,extending,coordinatin
32、g and completing international productionand trade networks.Fourth,the implications of the Asian experience forapparel sourcing in North America and Europe are assessed.Both regions aremoving beyond assembly production and establishing full-package or OEMmodels in order to promote regionally integra
33、ted apparel value chains.TheJapanese pattern of apparel sourcing,which is highly concentrated on a fewsuppliers,is contrasted with the American and European patterns,and thedifferences are traced to trade policy.The final section of the report offersconclusions regarding upgrading options within the
34、 global apparel industry.,Global value chains,There are two types In global capitalism,economic activity is international in scope and global inof global value organization.“Internationalization”refers to the geographic spread of,chains economic activities across national boundaries.As such,it is no
35、t a new,phenomenon.It has been a prominent feature of the world economy since atleast the seventeenth century when colonial powers began to carve up theworld in search of raw materials and new markets.“Globalization”is morerecent,implying functional integration between internationally dispersedactiv
36、ities.,22,1,2,3,The Global Apparel Value Chain:What Prospects for Upgrading by Developing Countries?producer-driven Industrial and commercial firms have both promoted globalization,and buyer-driven establishing two types of international economic networks.One is“producer-driven”and the other“buyer-d
37、riven”.1 In producer-driven value chains,large,usually transnational,manufacturers play the central roles in coordinatingproduction networks(including their backward and forward linkages).This istypical of capital-and technology-intensive industries such as automobiles,aircraft,computers,semiconduct
38、ors and heavy machinery.Buyer-drivenvalue chains are those in which large retailers,marketers and brandedmanufacturers play the pivotal roles in setting up decentralized productionnetworks in a variety of exporting countries,typically located in developingcountries.This pattern of trade-led industri
39、alization has become common inlabour-intensive,consumer-goods industries such as garments,footwear,toys,handicrafts and consumer electronics.Tiered networks of third-worldcontractors that make finished goods for foreign buyers carry out production.Large retailers or marketers that order the goods su
40、pply the specifications.Firms that fit the buyer-driven model,including retailers like Wal-Mart,Searsand JC Penney,athletic footwear companies like Nike and Reebok,andfashion-oriented apparel companies like Liz Claiborne,Gap and The LimitedInc.,generally design and/or marketbut do not makethe brande
41、dproducts they order.They are“manufacturers without factories”,with thephysical production of goods separated from the design and marketing.Unlike producer-driven chains,where profits come from scale,volume andtechnological advances,in buyer-driven chains profits come fromcombinations of high-value
42、research,design,sales,marketing and financialservices that allow the retailers,designers and marketers to act as strategicbrokers in linking overseas factories and traders with product niches in theirmain consumer markets.2 Profitability is greatest in the concentrated parts ofglobal value chains th
43、at have high entry barriers for new firms.In producer-driven chains,manufacturers of advanced products like aircraft,automobiles and computers are the key economic agents both in terms oftheir earnings and their ability to exert control over backward linkages withraw material and component suppliers
44、,and forward linkages into distributionand retailing.The lead firms in producer-driven chains usually belong tointernational oligopolies.Buyer-driven value chains,by contrast,arecharacterized by highly competitive and globally decentralized factorysystems with low entry barriers.The companies that d
45、evelop and sell brand-named products have considerable control over how,when and wheremanufacturing will take place,and how much profit accrues at each stage.Thus,large manufacturers control the producer-driven value chains at thepoint of production,while marketers and merchandisers exercise the mai
46、nleverage in buyer-driven value chains at the design and retail stages.,Apparel is a goodexample of a buyer-driven value chain,Apparel is an ideal industry for examining the dynamics of buyer-drivenvalue chains.The relative ease of setting up clothing companies,coupled withthe prevalence of develope
47、d-country protectionism in this sector,has led toan unparalleled diversity of garment exporters in the third world.Furthermore,the backward and forward linkages are extensive,and help toaccount for the large number of jobs associated with the industry.3 Theapparel value chain is organized around fiv
48、e main parts:raw material supply,Gereffi(1994,1999).Gereffi(1994).See Appelbaum et al.(1994).3,4,The Global Apparel Value Chain:What Prospects for Upgrading by Developing Countries?,including:natural and synthetic fibres;provision of components,such as theyarns and fabrics manufactured by textile co
49、mpanies;production networksmade up of garment factories,including their domestic and overseassubcontractors;export channels established by trade intermediaries;andmarketing networks at the retail level(see Figure 1).,There are differences between these parts,such as geographical location,labour skil
50、ls and conditions,technology,and the scale and type of enterprises,which also affect market power and distribution of profits among the mainfirms in the chain.Entry barriers are low for most garment factories,althoughthey become progressively higher when moving upstream to textiles andfibres;brand n
