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1、Chapter Three Lexicon,Outline,Lexicon 词汇Morphology 形态学Lexical change 词汇变化,Lexicon,Definition of“word”3 senses of wordIdentification of wordsClassification of words,Lexicon:the whole vocabulary of a language as against grammar of a language.词汇,Lexeme:in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word,
2、lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which appears in different grammatical contexts.词素/词位,1.What is word?,A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers,whether it is expressed in spoken or writt
3、en form.A vague definition.Three senses are involved in defining“word”,none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.,1.1 Three senses of 含义,1)A physically definable unit:自然的有界限的对立单位 a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks,egPhonological:Orthographic:It is
4、 wonderful.Three words are recognized.,However,in casual speech or writing,it often becomes:Phonological:Orthographic:Its wonderful.Are they two words or three?,2)both as a general term and as a specific term 普通术语&专门术语boy/boys:one wordgeneralboy/boys:two words.specific,3)A grammatical unit 语法单位,Clau
5、se complexClausePhrase/word groupWordMorpheme,rank 级阶,a hierarchical scale层级体系,1.2 Identification of words 识别,Stability:稳定性 stable linguistic units.chairman,but not*manchair(in terms of internal structure of a word)Relative uninterruptibility:相对连续性though we recognize three components in the word dis
6、appointment,we cannot pause and add another component in between,as in*disinterestappointment.(in terms of internal structure of a word)But we can add another word between words:Paul,(John)and Mary.,A minimum free form:最小的自由形式 the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself,egIs
7、 Jane coming tonight?Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.,1.3 Classification of words 分类,Variable vs.Invariable Words:可变化/非变化词Invariable words-do not have inflective endings:since,when,seldom,through,etc.,Variable words:write,writes,writing,wrote,written;cat,cats.They are the those that may have inflective change
8、s屈折变化,the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.,Grammatical vs.Lexical Words:语法词/词汇词Grammatical/Function words功能词:conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexical/Content words实义词:nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs.,Closed-class 封闭类vs.Open-cl
9、ass 开放类 Words:Closed-class words:New members cannot normally be added,eg pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.Open-class words:New members can be added,eg nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs.,Word class:known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.词类/词性Noun,verb,adjective,adverb
10、,preposition,pronoun,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Some new terms in word class:Particle:助词infinitive to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”,“look back”,etc.Auxiliary:助动词do,haveModal verbs:代词can,will,may,must,etc.,Pro-forms:代词形式substitutes for other terms.Pronoun:代词he,she,
11、I,they,everyonePro-adjective:代形容词Your car is red.So is his.Pro-verb:代动词He speaks English better than he did.Pro-adverb:代副词He hopes to win and I hope so too.Pro-locative:代处所词He went there.,Determiner:限定词all the articles,demonstratives,and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.As m
12、any as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.,Determiner,Predeterminers:前位限定词all,both;half,one-third,three-quarters;double,twice,three times;such,what(exclamative)Central determiners:中位限定词the;this,these,that,those;PossP;we,us;you;which,what
13、(relative),what(interrogative);a,another,some,any,no,either,neither;each,enough,much,more,most,less;a few,a littlePostdeterminers:后位限定词every;many,several,few,little;one,two,three;(a)dozen,*their all trouble*five the all boys*all this boy*all both girls,pre+central+post,Morphology 形态学,Morpheme&morpho
14、logyTypes of morphemesInflection&word formationSememe vs.morpheme,phoneme vs.morpheme,Definition of morphology,“the study of the internal structure,forms and classes of words”(Liu,2006,p52)“the study of the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed”(Dai,2002,p34)“the system
15、atic study of morpheme,which studies the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed”(Hu,2006,p61),2.Morphology,Morphology:the study of word-formation,or the internal structure of words,or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components morphemes.,The Grammar of W
16、ords,2.1 Morphemes语素,The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.,origin,Morpheme:from:Greek morphe form+Engl
17、ish-eme,She is unfriendly.,sentence,words,morphemes,A MORPHEME is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.(Liu,2006,p52),2.2 Types of morphemes语素类型,Free vs.bound morphemesRoot,affix&stemInflectional affix&derivational affix,Free vs.Bound morphemes自由/黏着语素,Free morphemes:those that may const
18、itute words by themselves,eg boy,girl,table,nation.Bound morphemes:those that cannot occur alone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.,Root,affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干,Root:the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,eg friend as in unfriendliness.,Root is the part of a word that
19、 is left when all the affixes are removed.,Roots may be free:those that can stand by themselves,eg black+board;nation+-al;orbound:those that cannot stand by themselves,eg-ceive in receive,perceive,conceive.,Affix:the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.Normally div
20、ided into 前缀prefix(dis-,un-)and 后缀suffix(-en,-ify).中缀infix,Stem:a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,eg friend+-s;write+-ing,possibility+-es.A stem may be the same as a rootA stem may contain a root and one,or more than one derivational affix,friends,fri
21、endships,Notes:,A word must contain a root morpheme.All affixes in English are automatically bound morphemes.When all the affixes are removed,what left is the root.,A stem of a word may be:,works,stem&root,workers,root,stem,workshops,root,root,stem,Inflectional affix&derivational affix 屈折/派生词缀,Infle
22、ctional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes.Inflectional affixes dont change the word class of the word they attach to,whereas derivational affixes might or might not.,Whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the ph
23、rase or sentence.However,derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.In English,inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes,derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.,Inflection:grammatical endings,eg plural,tense,comparative,etc.Derivation:combination of a bas
24、e and an affix to form a new word,eg friend+-ly friendly.,From:Liu,2006,p55,2.3 Word-formation,Inflection,Indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case;and when inflectional affixes are added,the grammatical class of the stems(to whic
25、h they are added)WILL NOT CHANGE.,Nominal forms:boys,boysVerb forms:wants,wanted,wantingAdjective/adverb forms:smaller,smallest,Inflection,Word formation,In its restricted sense,refer to the process of how words are formed.,Compounding 复合,Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.Noun compou
26、nds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmillVerb compounds:brainstorm,lipread,babysitAdjective compounds:gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfreePreposition compounds:into,throughout,An endocentric compound consists of a head,i.e.the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound,and modi
27、fiers,which restrict this meaning.Endocentric compounds tend to be of the same part of speech(word class)as their head.,doghouse,doghouse,doghouse,head,modifier,doghouse,“a house intended for a dog”,Exocentric compounds do not have a head,and their meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from
28、its constituent parts.In an exocentric compound,the word class is determined lexically,disregarding the class of the constituents.,white-collar,a kind of collar,a white thing,a“must-have”is not a verb but a noun,a metaphor for socioeconomic status,Written forms of compoundsSolid:blackboard,teapot,bo
29、dyguardHyphenated:wedding-ring,wave-lengthOpen:coffee table,washing machineFree variation:businessman,business-man,business manwinebottle,wine-bottle,wine bottleno one,no-one,noone,Derivation派生,Class-changing:NV:lengthen,hospitalize,discardNA:friendly,delightful,speechlessVN:worker,employee,inhabita
30、ntVA:acceptable,adorableAN:rapidness,rapidityAV:deafen,sweetenAdjAdv:exactly,quickly,shows a relationship between roots&affixes,Class-preserving:NN:nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletVV:disobey,unfastenAA:grayish,irrelevant,Class preserving,Sememe vs.morpheme义素/语素,Sememe is the smallest component of meaning.E
31、g.:-s(morpheme)plurality(sememe)=more than one,Relationship between sememe&morpheme,One M vs.one SOne M vs.more than one SOne S vs.more than one MMs that have no specific SFunction changes in both S and M without M change,Phoneme vs.morpheme,Phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit of sound;Morpheme
32、is the smallest meaningful unit in grammar.MORPHOPHONOLOGY(MORPHONOLOGY)or MORPHOPHONEMICS(MORPHONEMICS):the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms,and,correspondingly,the morphological factors that affect the phoneme forms.形态音系/音位学,Interrelationship b
33、etween phonology&morphology,A single P vs.a single M;A single M vs.multiple P;AllomorphMorphemic conditions 语素限制Phonologically conditioned;Morphologically conditioned.,Allomorph 语素变体Different shapes or phonetic forms of the same morpheme According to American structuralists,morpheme is an abstract u
34、nit which consists of a sequence of phonemes and either expresses lexical meaning or helps construct grammatical structure.,Morph 语素变体,Morphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.They are the phonological(spoken)or orthographic(written)forms which real
35、ize morphemes.They are minimal carriers of meaning.,Liu,2006,p56,-s,the morpheme of plurality,-z-s-z-a i:i:-n,the allomorphs of-s,Liu,2006,p56,An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme.Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.,Lexi
36、cal change 词汇变化,Lexical change properMorpho-syntactical changeSemantic changePhonological changeOrthographic change,3.1 Lexical change proper 特有的词汇变化,Invention/Coinage发明法Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life,many new lexical items come directly from the consumer
37、items,their producers or their brand names.,Invention/Coinage发明法,Mostly brand names:Kodak,Coke,nylon,Band-aid,Xerox,Lycra,blending,Join together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word;(smog=smoke+fog)Or join the initial parts of the two words.(sitcom=situation comed
38、y),Blending混成法transfer+resistortransistorsmoke+fogsmogmotorist+hotelmotelbreakfast+lunchbrunchmodulator+demodulatormodemdance+exercisedancerciseadvertisement+editorialadvertorialeducation+entertainmentedutainmentinformation+commercialinfomercial,Fusion 熔合:a sort of blending.She was on the verge of c
39、rackup.breakdown.crackdown,Abbreviation/clipping,A new word is created by cutting the final part,cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.,Abbreviations缩写词,Clipping截断法Back-clippings:ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),exam(ination),hippo(potamus),lab(o
40、ratory),piano(forte),reg(ulation)sFore-clippings:(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copter,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quakeFore-and-aft clippings:(in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive),Acronym首字母拼音词,Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified
41、 headword.It is pronounced as a whole word according to phonological rules.,AIDS,Aids:Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeASAP:as soon as possibleCD-ROM:compact disc read-only memoryWASP:white Anglo-Saxon protestantdink(y):double income,no kidsnilk(y):no income,lots of kids,Initialism首字母缩略词AI:artific
42、ial intelligencea.s.a.p.:as soon as possibleECU:European Currency UnitHIV:human immunodeficiency virusPC:personal computerPS:postscriptRSVP:rpondez sil vous plait(please reply in French),Abbreviation,acronym,initialism?,Abbreviation:A shortened form of a word or phrase used to represent the complete
43、 form(e.g.,Mass.for Massachusetts,or Dr.for Doctor.)Acronym:An abbreviation forms a word,using the initial letters of a name(e.g.,WAC for Womens Army Corps)or parts of a series of words(e.g.radar for radio detecting and ranging).,Initialism:An abbreviation using the first letter(or letters)of a word
44、 in a phrase(e.g.,IRS),syllables or components of a word(e.g.,TNT)or a combination of words and syllables(e.g.,ESP).Initialism and acronym are abbreviation,but they two are not interchangeable.,:Initialisms are pronounced by spelling out the letters one-by-one.,Back-formation逆构词法,Back-formation refe
45、rs to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.,diagnose diagnosis enthuse enthusiasm laze lazyliaise liaison reminisce reminiscence statistic statistics televise television,burgle,commentate,edit,peddle
46、,scavenge,sculpt,swindleair-condition,babysit,brainstorm,brainwash,browbeat,dry-clean,house-hunt,housekeep,sightsee,tape-recordarticulate,assassinate,coeducate,demarcate,emote,intuit,legislate,marinate,orate,vaccinate,valuate,Analogical creation 类推构词,The principle of analogical creation can account
47、for the co-existence of two forms,regular and irregular,in the conjugation of some English verbs.,From irregular to regular:work:wrought workedbeseech:besought beseechedslay:slew slayed?go:went goed?,He goed there,Borrowing借词,English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowin
48、g words from other languages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.,French:administration,parliament,public,court,crime,judge,army,enemy,officer,peace,soldier,war,faith,religion,coat,costume,dress,fashion,jewel,dinner,feast,fry,roast,sup
49、per,toast,customer,money,price,art,college,music,poet,prose,story,study,Latin:admit,client,conviction,discuss,equal,index,library,medicine,minorGreek:catastrophe,cosmos,criterion,idiosyncrasySpanish and Portuguese:banana,barbecue,cafeteria,cargo,chocolate,cigar,cocaine,cockroach,cocoa,guitar,mosquit
50、o,negro,potato,tank,tobacco,tomato,vanilla,Italian:aria,bandit,broccoli,casino,concerto,duet,finale,influenza,mafia,malaria,paparazzi(singular paparazzo),piano,pizza,solo,soprano,spaghetti,studio,umbrella,volcanoDutch:boss,brandy,cookie,cruise,deck,dock,dollar,freight,gin,kit,knapsack,landscape,luck
