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1、An essay on English LexicologyDespite what many might think, English Lexicology is well known across hundreds of nations all over the world. English Lexicology has been around for several centuries and has a very important meaning in the lives of many. It would be safe to assume that English Lexicol
2、ogy is going to be around for a long time and have an enormous impact on the lives of many people. test for introduction.Social & Cultural FactorsEnglish Lexicology has a large role in American Culture. Many people can often be seen taking part in activities associated with English Lexicology. This
3、is partly because people of most ages can be involved and families are brought together by this. Generally a person who displays their dislike for English Lexicology may be considered an outcast.Economic FactorsIt is not common practice to associate economics with English Lexicology. Generally, Engl
4、ish Lexicology would be thought to have no effect on our economic situation, but there are in fact some effects. The sales industry associated with English Lexicology is actually a 2.3 billion dollar a year industry and growing each year. The industry employs nearly 150,000 people in the United Stat
5、es alone. It would be safe to say that English Lexicology play an important role in American economics and shouldnt be taken for granted.Environmental FactorsAfter a three month long research project, Ive been able to conclude that English Lexicology doesnt negatively effect the environment at all.
6、A English Lexicology did not seem to result in waste products and couldnt be found in forests, jungles, rivers, lakes, oceans, etc. In fact, English Lexicology produced some positive effects on our sweet little nature.Political FactorsOh does English Lexicology ever influence politics. Last year 5 c
7、andidates running for some sort of position used English Lexicology as the primary topic of their campaign. A person might think English Lexicology would be a bad topic to lead a campaign with, but in fact with the social and environmental impact is has, this topic was able to gain a great number of
8、 followers. These 5 candidates went 4 for 5 on winning their positions.ConclusionEnglish Lexicology seem to be a much more important idea that most give credit for. Next time you see or think of English Lexicology, think about what you just read and realize what is really going on. It is likely you
9、under valued English Lexicology before, but will now start to give the credited needed and deserved.形义联想法，找出单词之间形状和意义的共同特点，利用他们的共同特点展开记忆。比如我们对ball，ballet，balloon，ballot，bullet等几个词就可以做这样的联想记忆，即他们都和球有着意义是上的联系。balloon是体积较大的气球，ballot是用来投票的纸球，bullet是体积较小的金属球。再比如：brace(支柱，支架)，bracket(托架，括号)?brake(闸，刹车)，br
10、anch(分叉，树枝)?等几个词当中都包含了br，而它像张开两手向前作“抱”的姿势。这几个单词的汉语意思当中也都包含一个，抱或托的形象。1，声音记忆法：看发音，有些很搞笑，如elocution 演说术，可以看成爱唠嗑的。acme最高点，我是这样想的：爱过你极大的痛苦，所以是最高的一类感情，最高的。dogmatism 教条主义，就是狗（够）他妈的（烦）。有点粗鲁，但很好记。2，记忆一类词，有好多同义词，背书时记得总结，归为类，或上网查，输入：GRE同义词3，记形近词，把形相近的词整理一下4，音相近，整理方式同上。5，遵循记忆规律，早上起床两小时记忆力最佳，晚上睡觉前半小时记忆力最佳，每个单词看5
11、秒，连续看七个，然后用30秒复习，来回次数要多，这样才加深记忆，每页背五分钟，背完一页后用1分钟复习前一页，30分钟背6页，然后用10分钟复习，再依照之前的方式继续背。被两个list，晚上睡觉前复习一下，第二天在复习前一天背过的，以后再复习就隔两天，以此类推，加深记忆。（你可以买 杨鹏十七天搞定GRE单词坚持下来，效果绝佳）6，背书时要多做题，加深记忆，也可以多看一些书，你可以去USNEWS网上看新闻，大部分都是GRE单词。7，有时间看英文电影以上就是我背词时的方法，希望对你有用，背词虽然辛苦，但如果你征服了GRE，你会有一种前所未有的满足感。还有一句话就是我的座右铭：心比天高，脚踏实地，坚持
12、不懈，终将胜利 An essay on English Lexicologygeneral remarks总论 the three major processes :1、 affixation or derivation(附加或起源)(prefixation suffixation) 2、 conversion 3 、composition or compoundingPrefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-c
13、lass of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, e.g. asleep a. (a- + v), encourage v. (en- + n), unearth v. (un- + n), de-oil v. (de- + n), postwar a. (post- + n), intercollege a. (inter- + n) and others. These make up
14、 only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change meanings of the stems. Accordingly, we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into eight groups. 前缀法是在词干上加前缀构成新词的方法
15、。前缀一般不改变词干的词性，只改变词义。然而，当代英语中发现有不少前缀可改变词性，例如a + sleep(v adj.)，en + courage(n.v.)，un + earth (nv)， de + oil (n.v.)，post + war (n.adj.)，inter + college(n.adj.)等等。不过，这些在当代词汇中仅占无关紧要的比例。根据前缀不改变词性只改变词义的特征，我们按语义将前缀分为9大类。in some reference books,prefixs and suffixes are classified according to their source,bu
16、t this does not seem to help from practical point of view.It seems more helping to classify the most important productive prefixs by their meaning into the follow ten categories:前缀法是在词干上加前缀构成新词的方法。前缀一般不改变词干的词性，只改变词义。然而，当代英语中发现有不少前缀可改变词性，例如a + sleep(v adj.)，en + courage(n.v.)，un + earth (nv)， de + oi
17、l (n.v.)，post + war (n.adj.)，inter + college(n.adj.)等等。不过，这些在当代词汇中仅占无关紧要的比例。根据前缀不改变词性只改变词义的特征，我们按语义将前缀分为9大类。Word-formation (I)(The Three Major Processes of Word-formation)1. General RemarksVarious ways of forming words can be classified on the basis of frequency of usage, into major or minor process
18、es. The major processes are three, namely, compounding, derivation and conversion.The minor processes are eight, namely, acronymy, blending, clipping, words from proper names, back-formation, reduplication, neo-classical formation and miscellaneous.A. Percentage of new words coined by the different
19、word-formation processes after World War IIThe percentage of firmly established new words coined by the above processes since World War II is shown in the following table:1. The three major processes of word-formation: l1(a)(b)Suffixation: hawkish, modernize;(c) Conversion (about 10.5%):bottle (verb
20、), buy (noun).Note that words formed by these processes account for 55% of the new vocabulary.2. The eight minor processes of word-formation: l2(a)(b)(c)(d)(e) Back formation(f)(g)(h) Others (about 3%): pizzazz, gazump.Words formed by these minor processes account for 26.5% of the new vocabulary. Th
21、e remaining 18.5% is from borrowing, e.g. discotheque, ombudsman and many others.B. Some basic concepts of word-formationBefore we deal with word-formation proper, we will first explain some of the terminology to be used in the study of word-formation.1. Word-formation rules: The rules of word-forma
22、tion define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words; for instance, the able word-formation rulesl3 says, -able is to be added to verbs to form an adjective meaning fit to be, or to nouns to form an adjective with the sense showing the quality of. And one of the noun
23、 compound formation is noun plus noun.However, any rule of word-formation is of limited productivity in the sense that not all the words which result from the application of the rule are acceptable. Thus readable, fashionable are acceptable, but writable, deskable are not acceptable.2. Root, stem, b
24、ase: l4The three are terms used in linguistics to designate that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed.A root( 词根)l5 is a form that is not further analysable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word-form that remains when all the
25、 inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. Thus in the word undesirables, the root is desire, to which first the suffix able, then the prefix un- and finally the inflectional suffix s have been added. In a compound word like greenhouse, there are two roots, green and house.A stem（词干）l
26、6 is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. It is the part of word form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. Thus in the word undesirables, the stem is undesirable; but in the word desired, the stem is desire; in the word greenhouses the stem is greenhou
27、se, even though the stem consists of two roots.A base（词基）l7 is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; it may also be defined as a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied. Therefore, this means that any root or stem can be termed a base. But a base differs from both a root or a
28、 stem, because they have their own special features as we have discussed before. 2. Compounding （composition ）A. Definition: Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.It(b)(c) open: air force, air raid.The gener
29、al tendency nowadays is for compounds to be written solid as soon as they have gained permanent status; otherwise they are written open.B. Classification of CompoundsCompounds are here classified according to parts of speech of the compounds, i.e. as noun compounds, adjective compounds and verb comp
30、ounds, which are then subdivided by the syntactic relation of the compounding elements (this relation is indicated by syntactic paraphrase).1. Noun compounds: This is the commonest type, and new specimens are constantly being formed. Noun compounds are subclassified according to the syntactic relati
31、on of the compounding elements:(a) Subject and verb: The verb may take the form of the base or that of the base plus ing. Examples are headache the head aches, heartbeat the heart beats; revolving door the door revolves.(b) Verb and object: The verb may take the form of the base or that of the base+
32、-ing. For example: birthcontrol to control birth; housekeeping to keep house; and dressmaking to make dresses. The type housekeeping and dressmaking is very productive.(c) Verb and adverbial: Verbal noun in ing +adverbial (consisting of a prepositional phrase) e.g. swimming pool to swim in the pool
33、or a pool for swimming; typing paper to type on paper. It is a very productive type. (d) Subject and object: steamboat steam powers the boat; honeybee the bee produces honey.(e) Restrictive relation: the first element restricts the meaning of the second: raindrop a drop of rain; evening school a sch
34、ool in the evening; tablecloth a cloth for table; breakfast time time for breakfast. The types of words like tablecloth and breakfast time expressing purpose is very productive.(f) Appositive relation: the first element is in apposition to the second one: e.g. a peasant girl the girl is a peasant; a
35、 pine tree the tree is a pine. When the first element of a noun compound is itself a compound, such a compound is called a string compound. e.g. test-tube baby one conceived by artificial insemination, or developed elsewhere than in a mothers body.Compound nouns can also be formed from phrasal verbs
36、. This type is very common in contemporary English. Examples are: sit-in, dropout, phone-in, breakdown, setback and take-off.2. Adjective compounds: Adjective compounds are also subclassified according to the syntactic relation of the compounding elements:(a) Subject and verb: The verb is in the for
37、m of past participle. Examples are thunder-struck (houses) thunder struck the houses; suntanned (skin) sun tanned the skin. This type is highly productive.(b) Verb and object: the verb is in the form of present participle, e.g. fault-finding to find fault; peaceloving to love peace. e.g. taxfree fre
38、e from tax; seasick sick due to sailing on the sea; fireproof proof against fire.The noun denoting the thing with which the adjective is compared (as+adjective+as+noun, adjective like noun); e.g. ocean green as green as ocean; crystal-clear as clear as a crystal; shoulder-high as high as shoulders.(
39、e) Coordinating relationship: The two adjectives are in a coordinating relationship, e.g. bittersweet sweet but bitter; Sino-U.S. relations relation between China and the U.S.3. Verb compounds:Verb compounds fall into two main groups according to their method of formation:(a) Those formed by back-fo
40、rmation: Back-formation is a reversal to babysit (from babysitting and babysitter); to windowshop (from window-shopping).(b) Those formed by conversion. In this case, the verb compounds are converted from noun compounds; e.g.to nickname to honeymoon to outlineto machine-gun to snowball, etc.These ve
41、rb compounds are very often used in colloquial speech.What might be more useful for a non-native speaker to do is to become familiar with some of the productive types as indicated in this chapter, and when examples of a certain type are found in context, to associate them with other examples of the
42、same type, so that his reading vocabulary will be enlarged.Compounds are very often used because of their brevity and vividness. e.g. up-to-the-minute information is more vivid than the latest information. 3. DerivationA. Definition:Derivation or affixation is a process of forming new words by the a
43、ddition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining form, to an already existing word. A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek.e.g. auto (Gk autos self); hydro (Gk hydor water); tele (Gk tele far off).But they now occurs only in derivativ
44、es.Derivation is subdivided into prefixation and suffixation.B. PrefixationPrefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combining form to the base.Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base, but do not generally change the word-class of the base. e.g. fair-unfair.However, in
45、current English, prefixes do convert words to a different word-class in comparison with their original bases.e.g. be- adj.-v. becalm, belittlede- n.-v. deform, debugen- n.-v. enslave, endangerun- n.-v. unleash, unearthanti- n.-adj. anti-war, anti-craftinter- n.-adj. inter-state, inter-laboratorypost
46、- n.-adj. postwar, postliberationpre- n.-adj. prewar,preplantClassification of prefixes: They can be classified into the following eight categories by their meaning:1) negative prefixes (un-, non-, in-, dis-, a-);2) reversative or privative(非 缺) prefixes (un-, de-, dis-);3) pejorative prefixes (贬损)
47、(mis-, mal-);4) Prefixes of size or degree (arch-, super-, out-, sub-, over-, under-, hyper-, ultra-, mini-)5) Prefixes of attitude (co-, counter-, anti-, pro-)6) locative prefixes (super-, sub-, inter-, trans-)7) Prefixes of time and order (fore-, pre-, post-, ex- re-)8) number prefixes (uni-/mono-
48、, bi-/di-, multi-/poly-)There is also a miscellaneous category (auto-, neo-, pan-, proto-, semi-, vice-).Anti-, de-, mini-, non-, re-, super-, and un- are some of the most productive prefixes today, which should be closely observed.B. SuffixationSuffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base. e.g. boy-boyish. But there are exceptions: e.g. boy-boyhood.Classification of suffixes: Si
