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1、 Chapter 1Translation can refer to the general subject field, the product or the process.The process of translation between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original written text in the original verbal language into a written text in a different verbal language. Th
2、ree categories of translation by the Russian-American structuralistRoman Jakobson1 intralingual translation语内翻译：Rewording, an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language;2 interlingual translation语际翻译: Translation proper*, an interpretation of verbal signs by means of
3、 some other language;3 intersemiotic translation语符翻译transmutation, an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems. History of the discipline1,From late eighteenth century to the 1960s: part of language learning methodologyTranslation workshop, comparative literature,
4、contrastive analysis 2,James S Holmes “the name and nature of translation studies” (founding statement for the field) 3, 1970:Reiss: text typeReiss and Vermeer: text purpose(the skopos theory)Halliday: discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar 4, 1980The manipulation school: descriptive app
5、roach, polysystem 5, 1990Sherry Simon:Gender researchElse Vieira: Brazilian cannibalist schoolTejaswiniNiranjana: Postcolonial translation theoryLawrence Venuti: cultural-studies-oriented analysis Holmess map of translation studiesThe objectives of the pure areas of research:1, descriptive translati
6、on theory: the description of the phenomena of translation2, translation theory: the establishment of general principles to explain and predict such phenomena Pure: theoretical and descriptiveDTS: descriptive translation studies1, product-oriented DTS: existing translations, text (diachronic or sync
7、hronic)2, function-oriented DTS: the function of translations in the recipient sociocultural situation (socio-translation studies or cultural-studies-oriented translation)3, process-oriented DTS: the psychology of translation (later think-aloud protocols) Relation between Theoretical and descriptive
8、The results of DTS research can be fed into the theoretical branch to evolve either a general theory of translation or, more likely, partial theories of translation. Partial theories1, Medium-restricted theories: translation by machine and humans2, Area-restricted theories:3, Rank-restricted theorie
9、s: the level of word, sentence or text4, Text-type restricted theories: discourse types or genres5, Time-restricted theories:6, Problem-restricted theories: Applied branch of Holmess framework: translator training, translation aids and translation criticism. Translation policy: the translation schol
10、ar advising on the place of translation in societyChapter 2 translation theory before the twentieth centuryLiteral vs. free debateCicero (first century BCE): I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language.Horace: producing an aestheti
11、cally pleasing and creative text in the TL.St Jerome: I render not word for word, but sense for sense. Martin Luther:1, non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.2, his infusion of the Bible with the language of ordinary people and his considerat
12、ion of translation in terms focusing on the TL and the TT reader were crucial. Louis Kelly:Fidelity: to both the words and the perceived senseSpirit:1, creative energy or inspiration of a text or language, proper to literature; 2, the Holy Spirit.Truth: content17 century: Early attempts at systemati
13、c translation theoryCowley: imitationCounter the inevitable loss of beauty in translation by using our wit or invention to create new beauty;he has taken, left out and added what I please John Dryden reduces all translation to three categories:the triadic model(约翰德莱顿的三分法:“直译”、“意译”与“仿译”)1,metaphrase:
14、 word for word translation2, paraphrase: sense for sense translation3, imitation: forsake both words and sense Etienne Dolet: a French humanist, burned at the stake for his addition to his translation of one of Platos dialogues.Five principles: The translator must perfectly understand the sense and
15、material ofthe original author,although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL, so as not to lessen the majesty of the language.The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual f
16、orma.The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness. Alexander Fraser TytlerTL-reader-oriented definition of a good translation:That, in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as
17、strongly felt, by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. Three general rules:I. That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.II. That the style and manner of writing should be
18、of the same character with that of the original.III. That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. A. F. Tytler: Essay on the Principles of Translation Tytler ranks his three laws in order of comparative importance:Ease of composition would be sacrificed if necessary for man
19、ner, and a departure would be made from manner in the interests of sense. Friedrich Schleiermacher: the founder of modern Protestant theology and of modern hermeneuticsHermeneutics: a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but on the individuals inner feeling and understandi
20、ng.2 types of translators:1, Dolmetscher: who translates commercial texts;2, Ubersetzer: who works on scholarly and artistic texts.2 translation methods:1, translator leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. Alienating method2, translator leaves the writer a
21、lone, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards the writer. Naturalizing method The status of the ST and the form of the TLFrancis Newman: emphasize the foreignness of the workMatthew Arnold: a transparent translation method (led to the devaluation of translation and marginalization of trans
22、lation) Chapter 3 Equivalence and equivalent effect Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaningSaussure: the signifier(能指) the spoken and written signalThe signified(所指) the concept signifiedThe signifier and signified form the linguistic sign, but that sign is arbitrary or unmotivated.1, There
23、 is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units.Interlingual translation involvessubstituting messages in one language not for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other language.2, for the message to be equivalent in ST and TT, the code-unit will be different since they belong
24、to two different sign systems which partition reality differently.3, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language.4, c
25、ross-linguistic differences centeraround obligatory grammatical and lexical forms. They occur at the level of gender, aspect and semantic fields. Eugene Nida1, an orthographic word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context
26、 and can produce varying responses accordingto culture.2, meaning is broke down into a, linguistic meaning, b, referential meaning (the denotative dictionary meaning指称，字面) and c,emotive meaning (connotative隐含).3, techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic itemsA, analyze the structu
27、re of wordsB, differentiate similar words in relaxed lexical fields 3 techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic items1， Hierarchical structuring, differentiates series of words according to their level,2，Techniques of componential analysis（成分分析法） identify and discriminate specific
28、features of a range of related words.3，Semantic structure analysis：Discriminate the sense of a complex semantic termChomsky:Generative-transformational model: analyze sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules. 3 features1, phrase-structure rules短语结构规则generate an underlying or deep
29、structure which is 2, transformed by transformational rules转换规则relating one underlying structure to another, to produce3, a final surface structure, which itself is subject to形态音位规则phonological and morphemic rules. The most basic of such structures are kernel sentences, which are simple, active, dec
30、larative sentences that require the minimum of transformation. Three-stage system of translationAnalysis: the surface structure of the ST is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure Transfer: these are transferred in the translation processRestructuring: these are transferred in the tr
31、anslation process and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the TT.Back-transformation回归转换(Kernels are to be obtained from the ST structure by a reductive process)Four types of functional class: events, objects, abstracts and relationals. Kernels are the leve
32、l at which the message is transferred into the receptor language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages: literal transfer, minimal transfer最小单位转换and literary transfer. Formal equivalence:focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content, the message in th
33、e receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language. Gloss translations释译 Dynamic equivalence is based on whatNida calls the principle of equivalent effect, where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that
34、which existed between the original receptors and the message. Four basic requirements of a translation1, making sense2, conveying the spirit and manner of the original3, having a natural and easy form of expression4, producing a similar response. NewmarkCommunicative translation attempts to produce
35、on its reader an effectas close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.Literal translation is held to be the be
36、st approach in both communicative translation and semantic translation. One of the difficulties encountered by translation studies in systematically following up advances in theory may indeed be partly attributable to the overabundance of terminology. Werner KollerCorrespondence: contrastive linguis
37、tics, compares two language systems and describes contrastively differences and similarities. Saussures langue (competence in foreign language) Equivalence: equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts. Saussures parole (competence in translation) Five types of equivalenceDenotative equival
38、enceConnotative equivalenceText-normative equivalencePragmatic equivalence (communicative equivalence)Formal equivalence (expressive equivalence, the form and aesthetics of the text) A checklist for translationally relevant text analysis:Language functionContent characteristicsLanguage-stylistic cha
39、racteristicsFormal-aesthetic characteristicsPragmatic characteristics Tertiumcomparationi in the comparison of an ST and a TT “第三对比项”“(某种恒定的客体超越任何个体语言的)第三元素”An invariant against which two text segments can be measured to gauge variation. Chapter 4 static linguistic typologies of translation shifts C
40、hapter 5 functional theories of translation Katharina Reiss: Text TypeBuilds on the concept of equivalence but views the text, rather than the word or sentence as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought. Four-way categorization of the functions of languag
41、e (Karl Buhler, three)1, plain communication of facts, transmit information and content, informative text2, creative composition, expressive text3, inducingbehavioral responses, operative text4, audiomedialtext, supplement the other three functions with visual images, music, etc.Different translatio
42、n methods for different texts1, transmit the full referentical or conceptual content of the ST in plain prose without redundancy and with the use of explicitation when required.2, transmitthe aesthetic and artistic form of the ST, using the identifying method, with the translator adopting the standp
43、oint of the ST author.3,produce the desired response in the TT receiver, employing the adaptive method, creating an equivalent effect among TT readers.4, supplementing written words with visual images and music. Intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction criteria1, intralinguisticcriteria: sema
44、ntic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic features2, extralinguistic criteria: situation, subject field, time, place, receiver, sender and affective implications (humor, irony, emotion, etc.) Holz-Manttari: Translational actionTakes up concepts from communication theory and action theoryTranslation a
45、ction views translation as purpose-driven, outcome oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Interlingual translation is described as translational action from a source text and as a communicative process i
46、nvolving a series of roles and players.The initiatorThe commissionerThe ST producerThe TT producerThe TT userThe TT receiver Content, structured by what are called tectonics, is divided into a) factual information and b) overall communicative strategy.Form, structured by texture, is divided into a)
47、terminology and b) cohesive elements. Value: place of translation, at least the professional non-literary translation within its sociocultural context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution. Vermeer:Skopos theorySkopos theory focuses above all on the purpose o
48、f the translation, which determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result (TT, translatum).Basic rules of the theory:1, a translatum is determined by its skopos;2, a TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL concerning an offer of information in a source culture and SL.3, a TT does not ini
