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1、原文一：Understanding organizational culture and the implications for corporate marketingAlan M. WilsonAbstract The actions of employees such as service personnel are seen as being important in communicating a companys corporate values and goals, particularly where they interact directly with customers
2、and other corporate audiences. Their beliefs, norms and values derived from the organizational culture influence their actions and the informal messages that they communicate. A mystique still exists around the concept of organizational culture. This paper attempts to rectify this by reviewing the l
3、iterature relating to organizational culture, focusing on its definition, the factors which influence it and the arguments as to whether it can be managed. This requires marketers to work more closely with researchers and practitioners working in the fields of organizational behavior and human resou
4、rce management.IntroductionCorporate marketing activities are publicly visible programs and actions that companies undertake to communicate corporate activities that reflect the social responsibility, values and goals of the company. However, for many service organizations, corporate programs may be
5、 negated or strengthened by the actions of service personnel in the delivery of a service during an encounter with a customer. Parasuraman et al, in their analysis of why companies fail to meet customer expectations, highlighted the differences that can occur between the messages promoted through ex
6、ternal communications and the actions of service personnel. Corporate marketing activities may raise the expectations of customers and other audiences beyond that which can be delivered by service personnel. There is therefore a need for those involved in the design and management of corporate marke
7、ting activities within service organizations to be aware of one of the key factors influencing the actions of service personnel, that is, organizational culture.Norman saw no other component as being more crucial to the actions of service personnel and the messages they communicate than organization
8、al culture. The service transaction is a social process where personnel are driven by the inherent beliefs, norms and values existing within the organization. The service personnel are the face of the organization, and a companys effective use of that face is dependent on understanding organizationa
9、l culture.In the field of corporate identity research, questions of culture have been included in the conceptual models of corporate identity/image formation. Lumsden also found that 75 percent of a corporate identity consultants work was in understanding an organizations culture. However, Balmer an
10、d Wilson stated that much of this is done in a superficial manner and fails to take account of the complexities of organizational culture. They also stress the need for marketers to be more sensitive to and have a greater understanding of organizational culture when discussing questions of corporate
11、 branding, corporate marketing programs, and corporate identity management.This paper therefore aims to clarify understanding of organizational culture by reviewing the extensive literature on the subject, focusing first on the definition and format of organizational culture, then the factors which
12、influence it, and finally the arguments as to whether culture can be managed and potentially changed.Definition of organizational cultureThe concept of culture has principally stemmed from the study of ethnic and national differences in the disciplines of sociology, anthropology and social psycholog
13、y. A good summary of the many definitions for culture developed in each of these disciplines was given by the cultural geographer Haggett: Culture describes patterns of behavior that form a durable template by which ideas and images can be transferred from one generation to another, or from one grou
14、p to another. Three aspects of this definition need further explanation. First, the transfer of behavior does not take place through genetics but instead takes place through the social interaction between members of a group. Second, according to the culture pattern theory the various elements of a c
15、ulture tend to form a relatively stable harmonious system and therefore any cultural template is durable and slow to change. Third, the ideas and images of culture provide a guide for the conduct of acceptable behavior. As such, many aspects of the culture are embodied in rules of various sorts; som
16、e are laws which are backed by official punishment for deviation; others are social norms which are backed by social disapproval and rejection of deviates.Initially, within organizational theory, scholars used the culture concept as a metaphor to study organizations as forums in which meanings are c
17、onstructed and expressed through social interactions. But as it became part of the vocabulary of management thinking, more and more researchers began to employ culture as a variable rather than as a “root metaphor”, something an “organization had” versus something “it was”. Some of the earliest refe
18、rences to the concept of culture as an internal organizational variable are found in the literature of organization development. Several researchers began to link various types of cultures to certain outcome variables such as performance and internal integration. Thus, culture became a mechanism wit
19、h which to achieve managerial effectiveness and control.During these stages of development, a large number of definitions have been proposed for the concept of culture in the corporate setting. Some of these draw directly on the definitions from anthropology and the other root disciplines, others ar
20、e specific to the corporate sector. The more basic definitions do not aid understanding but simply provide a vague description to replace the term culture. These descriptions range from the “feeling in the station” to the “rules of the game” to “how things are done around here”. These simple descrip
21、tions contrast with the more all-embracing and more useful definitions produced by Schein, Schneider and Kotter and Heskett.A pattern of basic assumptions, invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that h
22、as worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and relate to those problems. Culture refers to: (a) the values that lie beneath what the organization rewards, supports and expects; (b) the norms that surround and underpin
23、 the policies, practices and procedures of organizations； (c) the meaning incumbents share about what the norms and values of the organization are.At the deeper and less visible level, culture refers to values that are shared by the people in a group and that tend to persist over time even when grou
24、p membership changes. At the more visible level, culture represents the behavior patterns or style of an organization that new employees are automatically encouraged to follow by their fellow employees. Each level of culture has a tendency to influence the other.These definitions outline some of the
25、 common key elements that appear in many of the definitions proposed for organizational culture. First, organizational culture is a shared phenomenon. Culture, in this sense, is a learned product of group experience and is, therefore, only to be found where there is a definable group with a signific
26、ant history. The group does not necessarily have to be a whole company. Companies can have multiple cultures or subcultures usually associated with different functional or geographical groupings.Second, the majority of authors, with the exception of Schein, believe that there are two levels of cultu
27、re, the visible level and the deeper, less visible level. Scheins view is that the term culture should only relate to the “deeper” less visible level, although he does use visible evidence to understand and describe different cultures. The third element relates to the manner in which new members lea
28、rn the culture. A process of cultural socialization arises informally from the existing employees and formally through induction training programs.Developing these elements into a definition results in organizational culture being defined as the visible and less visible norms, values and behavior th
29、at are shared by a group of employees which shape the groups sense of what is acceptable and valid. These are generally slow to change and new group members learn them through both an informal and formal socialization process.The nature of organizational cultureTo fully understand the complexity of
30、the organizational culture literature, it is necessary to explore the various perspectives of culture that have been adopted by the organizational behaviorists and other researchers in this field. Martin and Meyerson identified the following three major perspectives in organizational culture researc
31、h.1. The integration perspectiveThis portrays a strong or desirable culture as one where there is organization- wide consensus and consistency. Espoused values are consistent with formal practices, which are consistent with informal beliefs, norms and attitudes. Cultural members share the same value
32、s, promoting a shared sense of loyalty and commitment. 2. The differentiation perspectiveThis emphasizes that rather than consensus being organization-wide, it only occurs within the boundaries of a subculture. At the organizational level, differentiated subcultures may coexist in harmony, conflict
33、or indifference to each other. These subcultures related to different jobs, different levels of organizational status gender and class. What is unique about a given organizations culture, then, is the particular mix of subcultural differences within an organizations boundaries.3. The fragmentation p
34、erspectiveThis approach views ambiguity as the norm, with consensus and dissension coexisting in a constantly fluctuating pattern influenced by events and specific areas of decision making. Rather than the clear unity of the integration perspective, or the clear conflicts of the differentiation view
35、point, fragmentation focuses on that which is unclear.Factors influencing organizational culture In assessing the nature of an organizations culture, it is important for corporate marketers to understand the factors which underpin and influence culture. The most frequently cited groupings of factors
36、 include the following.1. The business environment The general business environment in which an organization operates helps to determine the culture. Society at large will influence opinions about work, money, status and different types of jobs. The writings of sociology and anthropology highlight t
37、he differences in cultural attitudes between geographical regions as well as differences between different levels of social strata. These differences will affect commitment, respect for managers, attitudes towards service and the customer.2. Leadership Leadership is thought by authors such as Kotter
38、 and Heskett and Schein as having some influence on the culture of an organization. However, there is no empirical evidence to suggest that it has the totally overpowering and guiding hand suggested by these authors.3. Management practices and the formal socialization process The manner in which a c
39、ompany is managed is likely to influence either positively or negatively the beliefs, attitudes and behavior of the employees. Before considering management practices, there is a need to distinguish between management and leadership. The leader is then responsible for communicating through words and
40、 deeds this vision to internal and external audiences while motivating and inspiring the individuals who have to deliver it. Management, on the other hand, is generally described as being about the detailed planning, budgeting, organizing, controlling and staffing of the organization as well as ad h
41、oc problem solving.Organizational culture change The culture of a group does evolve and change over time as a result of changes in the various influencing factors. However, the influencing factors and components of organizational culture are complex and intertwined. As a result, these evolutionary c
42、hanges may be too slow for the market and the management. The question then arises as to whether changes in an organizations culture or cultures can be managed. There is significant debate between researchers on this topic, with some seeing organizational culture as another critical component by whi
43、ch strategic managers can influence and direct the course of their organizations. In many cases these are the same authors who see a desirable culture as one where there is organization-wide consensus and consistency.As stated by Schein, culture operates as a set of implicit assumptions, which canno
44、t change unless they are brought to the surface and confronted. Therefore change may come about by getting employees to surface and re-examine the assumptions they hold. The role of management is to identify and manipulate the culture-influencing factors that will motivate employees to re-examine an
45、d potentially change their own internal assumptions and values. DiscussionThis paper, although clarifying the nature of organizational culture, has highlighted the complexity of the phenomenon. Organizational culture is multifaceted and complicated, encompassing a variety of forms, and is determined
46、 by myriad influencing factors. Therefore, a corporate communications managers goal of having an organizations corporate values and attitudes shared and reinforced by all personnel may be unattainable. Source：European Journal of Marketing. P353-367,2001译文一：理解组织文化和企业营销的影响艾伦M.威尔森摘要 雇员如服务员工的行动被认为对公司传达组
47、织价值观和目标是很重要的，特别是当组织与顾客和其他公司受众直接互动时。员工们那些从组织文化中派生的信仰、规范和价值观影响着他们的行动和沟通的非正式信息。关于组织文化的概念仍然是个谜本文试图通过审查与组织文化相关的著作，关注它们的定义、影响因素及是否能被控制的争论等来纠正这个问题。这就要求营销人员与组织行为和人力资源管理领域的研究人员和从业者更密切地工作在一起。引言企业营销活动是公司承担的去传达公司活动的反映企业的社会责任、价值观和目标的公开可见的方案和行动。然而，对于许多服务机构，公司的方案可能在与客户接触期间通过提供服务的服务人员的行动被否定或加强。企业营销活动可提高客户及其他观众的期望。除
48、此之外，服务人员也能提供期望。帕拉苏拉曼等人在他们的“为什么公司不能满足客户期望”的分析中，突出这些发生在通过外部沟通和服务人员的行动促成的信息之间差异。为了那些涉及到服务机构内的企业营销活动的设计和管理，因此有必要意识到影响服务人员的关键因素之一就是组织文化。诺曼认为没有任何其他组成部分比组织文化对服务人员的行动和他们交流的信息更关键的。服务交易是一个由组织内存在的人员内在的信念、标准和价值观驱动的社交过程。服务人员是一个组织的脸，并且一个公司是否有效利用那张脸依赖于其对组织文化的理解。在企业形象研究领域，文化问题已经被包含在企业形象/形像构造的概念模型中。拉姆斯登还发现，百分之七十五的企业
49、形象顾问的工作是理解一个组织的文化。然而，巴尔默和威尔逊指出，这些中的很大部分是用肤浅的方式来完成的，而且没有考虑到组织文化的复杂性。他们还强调，当讨论企业品牌、企业营销方案、企业身份管理的问题，需要营销人员更敏感，并且对组织文化有一个更丰富的理解。因此，本文的目的是通过回顾这个主题的大量的文献，关注的首先是组织文化的定义和格式，接着是影响它的因素，最后是文化是否可能被控制和改变的争论来阐明组织文化的理解。组织文化的定义文化的概念主要源自于在社会学、人类学和社会心理学等学科中种族和民族的差异的学习。一个对这些学科中的每个形成的许多文化定义的好的总结由文化地理学家哈格特给出：文化描述了可以形成一个观念和形象可以从一代人传递到另一代人或者从一个团体到另一个团体的持久板块的行为的模式。这个定义的三个方面需要进一步的解释。首先，行为的传递不通过遗传学发生反而通过团队成员之间的社交互动发生。第二，根
