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1、刍议英语委婉语的起源及其社会交际功能Abstract Euphemism, as a common linguistic phenomenon in world culture, is widely used in every social class and field. English euphemism, as one of many euphemisms existing in the world, has its own deep origin, which include both the religious origin and the historical, literary
2、origin. This thesis will try to discuss the origin of English euphemism from every aspect of religion, race, politics, literary, and history. Language reflects life, and is always closely related to the society. During the communication, due to some certain restriction of behavior and morality, peop
3、le tend to use euphemismused as a kind of lubrication, making the harsh, indelicate words sound tactful and pleasant. English euphemism plays a very important role in peoples social communication. This paper will also expound the social communicative function of English euphemism from the three aspe
4、cts: evasive function, polite function, and cosmetic function. Having a good understanding of the origin and social function of English euphemism and the English language culture can avoid many conflicts in the process of social communication.Key Words origin; communicative function; evasion; cosmet
5、ic function; politeness【摘 要】 委婉语是世界文化中普遍存在的语言现象，它广泛应用于社会各阶层和领域。英语委婉语作为众多委婉语中的一种，具有其产生的深厚渊源，其中包宗教与政治的，也包括文学与历史的。本文试图从宗教、种族、政治、文学、历史等方面入手来探讨英语委婉语的产生渊源。语言反映生活，并且总是和社会紧密联系在一起，在语言交谈中，由于一定的行为规范和道德准则的制约，人们通常使用委婉语-这一“润滑剂”，使刺耳，不文雅的话变得委婉愉悦。它在人们的社会交际过程中发挥着重要作用。本文从其避讳功能、礼貌功能以及掩饰功能三方面阐释了英语委婉语的社会交际功能。通过充分理解英语委婉语的
6、起源及其社会交际功能，进一步理解英语语言文化，以避免社会交际中的各种冲突。 【关键词】起源; 交际功能; 避讳; 礼貌; 掩饰1.IntroductionEuphemism is a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept. Every language has its own euphemism, so does English. It is deeply rooted in social life and has a great influence on social communication. As an indispen
7、sable and natural part of English language, English euphemism has attracted peoples attention for a long time. Since Euphemism was coined, it has played a very important role in peoples communication. The communication without euphemism is unimaginable. Euphemism is used like lubrication, which make
8、s the communication go on smoothly. This thesis will have an overview of the origin of English euphemism, and state its social communicative function.English euphemism as a linguistic concept, it has close relationships with the western culture, and it truly reflects the life and values of English p
9、eople and their history. Euphemism is a particularly good medium for access to the force of language that has provided an effective approach to understanding the human mind. The study of English euphemism can help us understand the western culture and promote the international development because eu
10、phemism is widely used in international negotiations. So there is a great need for us to study English euphemism, including: its origin, its social function, etc.2. The definitions of English euphemismEuphemism is a universal linguistic phenomenon. Nearly in every language, there are some disgusting
11、 words, which make people feel embarrassed. In the process of communication, the unsuitable or too direct words will make people feel uncomfortable, even angry. Then there is a great need for us to use a tactful way to express emotion, exchange ideas. That is to say, to use a pleasant, mild or indir
12、ect words or phrases take the place of tabooed words.It is known that euphemism is a form of language intentionally created in social relation to achieve ideal communication. Without them any language would seem to be vulgar and rude, void of politeness and vividness to some extent. As a common comm
13、unication in the process of people using language, euphemism is an important way for people to coordinate the social relationships. Like a kind of lubrication, euphemism enables people to express what cannot be uttered directly and ensures communication to be carried smoothly. It is a language strat
14、egy in civilized society for avoiding taboo. It is unimaginable if the communication is without euphemism.The word “euphemism” was derived from the Greek word “euphemismos”, which means “fair speech”. The prefix “eu” means “good, sound well” and “pheme” means “saying” or “speech”. And thus the liter
15、al meaning of “euphemism” is “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”. That is to say, euphemism is used as an alternative to unpleasant expression, in order to avoid possible lose of face, either ones own face or through going offense, that of the audience, or some of third of party. This
16、 unpleasant expression may be tabooed, fearsome, or for some other reasons that speakers cant or intend not to use some certain expression directly on some occasion. “In Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language is the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression f
17、or one thought substituted. Rawson Blunt, a British writer, defined euphemism as a good favorable interpretation of a bad word.”1 “Encyclopedia Britannica(1994) also defines euphemism as a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing or indelicate nature is described in less off
18、ensive terms”2 From the above mentioned, we could clearly see that euphemism is characterized by avoidance language and evasive expression. The speakers use words or expressions as a protective shield against the anger or disapproval of natural or supernatural things. It is one form of language and
19、a linguistic phenomenon 3.The origins of English euphemism3.1 The religious origin of English euphemismThe earliest English euphemisms come from “taboo”. The word “taboo” comes from Togan, a kind of Polynesian. It indicates evasive language or action.3 The emergence of English euphemism is to meet t
20、he need of avoiding taboos. In primitive society, people cant explain such things as ailment and some supernatural phenomena. “People have confusion between the name of the things and things themselves. The name is viewed as an extension of things. Just as the idiom says Speak of devil and he appear
21、s. Naturally the words or phrases related to such things become taboos.”4 In the ancient times, people had blind faith in ghosts and Gods they respected. They whispered and even feared them so they did not dare to address their names directly. They think it profane to name God. Therefore the names o
22、f gods become the earliest taboos. To speak name of gods was to evoke the divinity whose power then had to be confronted. Such dangerous practices were reserved for priests skilled in negotiating with the supernatural. So the usual way to avoid is to employ euphemisms. Therefore, for the religious n
23、eed, a lot of euphemisms about religion emerged. For example, in order not to desecrate God, people in English-speaking country always use some other name for God instead of calling directly, such as “Adonai, the Almighty, Caesars Cruth, the Creater, Dod, Gad, Land, Lawks, Lawd.”5 The opposite side
24、of god is devil, which is more terrible for people. When people refer to them, they tend to use such euphemisms to replace: D, the Big D, the Evil one, the Black one, the Goodman, Jesse, Old boy, Our father, Lord of lords, King of kings, the Light of the world, etc.6 From the above mentioned, we can
25、 find that religion brings many euphemistic terms in the religious matter, especially the naming and addressing of God to the language.3.2 The racial and national origins of English euphemismIt is known to all, the phenomenon of racial discrimination is deeply rooted in America in which “equal oppor
26、tunity” is flattered by American white people as an equal right enjoyed by everyone. Due to the pressure of social public opinion, although some whites discriminate the black from their heart, they will not expose this kind of prejudice in public. Meanwhile, few people dare to humiliate and persecut
27、e blacks publicly for no reason at all. In other words, the way of discrimination becomes tactful. There are many euphemisms emerging for this reason. In the 1930s, nigger is still a neutral noun in England, and has no meaning of humiliating blacks. But since this word has the obvious meaning of dis
28、criminating the blacks, most of people in England and Americans use some other euphemistic words, such as “colored black” instead. When talking about some other races, it does not often use the direct words that are related to color. People often use some euphemistic expression, such as the geograph
29、ic name.3.3 Historical, literary and political origins of English euphemismFrom the time the Normans conquered England in 1066, English has emerged many euphemisms. At that time, the main reason to use euphemism is that the language used by the conquered is often disparaged, and is thought as gross
30、language. The upper class surely doesnt want to lower their status to use such words. In order to avoid using such gross words, they tend to use “the elegant words”, which originated from Latin. And these words were mixed into English gradually.There are also many euphemisms in literary works. For e
31、xample, in Hamlet, Shakespeare use the expression “The undiscovered country from whose bourn no traveler returns”(从来不曾有一个旅人回来过的神秘之国) to express his great sympathy for Hamlet.7 The famous American writer Mark Twain use “release” to express “die” in his work The Adventure of Tom Sawyer. Besides, polit
32、ics is a fertile area for the appearance and growth of English euphemism, which is cosmetic in expression but deceptive in nature. Euphemisms of this kind are always consciously and deliberately. The cosmetic euphemism can be easily found in American English. Governments discussion of the Vietnam Wa
33、r was saturated with euphemisms. Villages burned and inhabitants imprisoned were Pacifications”; the war itself was not a war but a “conflict”, the “bombing” becomes “logistical strike” or “close air support”, and “killing” becomes “wasting the enemy”. These euphemisms are used to deceive and to hid
34、e the dirty business of war. 8 The use of such political euphemisms helps government to beautify the action and prevent people from taking any anti-government action. So in order to satisfy the political needs, many euphemisms come to exist-4.The social communicative function of English euphemismFro
35、m the perspective of language communication, euphemism functions to avoid taboos, to show politeness and conceal feelings. Thanks to euphemism, it is easy for people to accept the things that are likely to make others feel embarrassed or unhappy. It is peoples general character to express their idea
36、s as mildly and tactfully as possible. Euphemism helps people to reach this goal. From the moment euphemism came into existence, it has played a very important role in our daily communication, and help establish a good relationship between human beings and even strengthen the social stability. Euphe
37、mism are motivated by the desire not to be offensive. People use them to show their politeness, to avoid being offensive and to meet the psychological and beneficial needs of both speakers and hearers in communication. But sometimes they are used to conceal or cover something. Accordingly, euphemism
38、 serves three basic communicative functions: evasive function, polite function and cosmetic function.4.1 The evasive function of English euphemismThe evasive function of euphemism is to evade using taboos, enabling the speaker to talk about tabooed things freely. These tabooed things are believed to
39、 be dangerous to certain individuals, or to the society as a whole, or to be disgusting and unpleasant, and cause fear. Such tabooed things include: disease, disabilities, death, sex, body excretion and body elimination process, etc. People can use euphemisms to talk about what cannot be talked dire
40、ctly.4.1.1 In terms of disease and disabilitiesPeople yearn for health, and fear for specific disease and every sort of disability. So people always use tactful way to express them. For example, sexual or venereal disease such as syphilis, gonorrhoea, ADIS, etc. are called “social disease”, communic
41、ative disease”, etc. in English. Besides, disabilities are very sensitive area in every culture. In English, “the disabled, the handicapped, the inconvenienced, the invalid, auditory impaired, hard of hearing, talk with ones fingers”, etc. are put into service.9 So euphemism plays a very important f
42、unction in our social communication. Without it, we sometimes cannot continue our talk.4.1.2 In terms of deathDeath is an inevitable stage at the end of lifes journey. It is common experience of human beings. Yet it has been the source of fearfear of the loss of loved ones; fear of the end of ones l
43、ife; fear of the actual process of dying. Therefore, all these fears, worries, and unpleasant feelings combined lead to verbal taboo of death. Euphemisms concerning death are extremely rich. In English, there are more than seventy euphemisms for “death”, including “to be gone, to be gone to a better
44、 world, to be with God, to breath ones last, to close ones day, to depart from the world forever, to depart to God, to fall asleep, join the great majority, pass away, etc.10 No matter why this word is used in a certain language, people always tend to use less harsh words 4.1.3 In terms of sex, body
45、 excretion and body elimination process Words relating to sex, procreation and excretion are highly restricted to mention because they may evoke disgusting responses of people. Verbal taboo on them is probably motivated by the intuitive disaster, shame. People all have certain feelings of which they
46、 are so ashamed that they dont like to admit even to themselves. In peoples daily life or in some formal occasion, if the talk or discussion refers to something about drainage, people will try to avoid using vulgar language. They tend to use some implied or neutral words to make conversation comfort
47、able. For ordinary people, the safest way to avoid mentioning these things that they have to mention in many circumstances is to use another expressioneuphemism to replace the true name of such a thing. For example, in English there are many elegant expressions for “going to WC”, such as: to wash on
48、es hand, to spend a penny, to go and see ones aunt, to answer the call of nature, because nature calls, etc. 11 “The topic concerning being pregnant is touchy because it tends to arouse the association with sexual behaviors. To beat round bushes is very necessary, such as “with child”, “anticipating
49、”, “excepting” for “pregnant”, etc.12 Talking about sexual intercourse is taboo. Expressions relating to sex have heavily been veiled for the purpose of avoiding awkwardness and offense. So people use euphemistic words to talk about it. For example, people evade saying “hip” directly which is replaced with “buttock”, “bottom”, “ones thing”, and “secret parts” donates sex organs of both males and females.134.1.4 In terms of old age English and Chinese have different feelings a
