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1、Functions of languageFunction definedFunction means purpose, usefulness aspects of language. Examples from classic literature (In such cases natural selection might easily specialise, if any advantage were thus gained, a part or organ, which had performed two functions, for one function alone, and t
2、hus wholly change its nature by insensible steps.The Origin of Species by Darwin, CharlesView in contextThere exists a monition of the Bishop of Durham against irregular churchmen of this class, who associated themselves with Border robbers, and desecrated the holiest offices of the priestly functio
3、n, by celebrating them for the benefit of thieves, robbers, and murderers, amongst ruins and in caverns of the earth, without regard to canonical form, and with torn and dirty attire, and maimed rites, altogether improper for the occasion.Ivanhoe by Scott, WalterView in contextWith dim lights and ta
4、ngled circumstance they tried to shape their thought and deed in noble agreement; but after all, to common eyes their struggles seemed mere inconsistency and formlessness; for these later-born Theresas were helped by no coherent social faith and order which could perform the function of knowledge fo
5、r the ardently willing soul.Middlemarch by Eliot, GeorgeView in contextSearle (1969) and Leech (1983), etc. have respectively classified the functions of languages in terms of speech acts.Language can perform many functions. Here are some of the key ones:2.2.2 Phatic (寒暄功能)When language is used to e
6、stablish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas, it fulfills the phatic function. E.g.: farewells, comments on the weather, greetings (addressing as part of greeting) such as Hi!; Good weather, isnt it?; How are things with you? 2.2.3 Directive （指
7、令功能）When language is used to get the hearer to do something, it serves a directive function. E.g.: Listen, my children. Pass me the salt, please; You should do it right away; If I were you, I would not take the money; Have another sandwich; Do come in, please. (speaker-cost / benefit; hearer-cost /
8、benefit)2.2.4 Informative （信息功能） Language can serve the informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out. E.g.: Water boils at 21 degree Fahrenheit. 从西方哲学史看，对日常语言作哲学思辩不是什么新的哲学课题。早在古希腊时期哲学家对语言是否是人的区别属性就做过较深入的思考。分析哲学所关心的一些
9、核心问题，如命题、真假值、指称、有定表述、分析命题、综合命题、预设等都是跟语言发生直接的关系。（顾曰国，2002：25）2.2.5 Interrogative （疑问功能）Language is used to get information from others. E.g.: questions to expect an answer such as When /Where/ Why/ What / How . did you manage it? What do you think of my plan? 那么当代的日常语言分析哲学又有什么特点呢？首先，日常语言分析哲学是分析哲学这个大浪
10、潮中的一个分支。（顾曰国，2002：15）2.2.6 Expressive （表达功能）Language is used to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. E.g.: ejaculations such as Good heavens!; “my God!; “Im extremely sorry about it. 牧场是我家Home on the Rangehttp:/www.usembassy- 关于牧场是我家这首诗歌的来历有两种不同的说法。一种认爲它是由堪萨斯州的布鲁斯特希利博士和丹
11、凯利所作；另一种则认爲它是由哪位不知名的作者创作的一首牧童曲。据传，堪萨斯州哈钦森的希利博士于1873年写下它的歌词，而他在堪萨斯州史密斯县开一家商栈的一位朋友丹凯利爲它谱了曲。该诗没有取得版权，所以长期以来有不少人冒称诗作者，但均未遂心愿。弗兰克林D罗斯福总统曾经说过这是一首他最喜欢的诗。因此，它便广泛流传开来。 哦、给我一个家，那里牛群信步走，山鹿羚羊戏玩耍；没有遮天蔽日云，只有激励人心话。(合唱)家，牧场是我家，山鹿羚羊戏玩耍；没有遮天蔽日云，只有激励人心话。多少夜晚星光闪，翘首举目星空望，惊叹星斗比我美，颗颗银钉真灿烂。哦，给我一片地，钻石金沙顺流走；雪白天鹅水中嬉，可是仙女下凡舞?空
12、气清新万里风，微风轻轻千里香?纵有都市百样美，岂能换我牧场家?2.2.7 Evocative （表情功能）Language is used to create certain feelings (amusement, startling, anger, soothing, worry, pleased, etc. ) in the hearer. E.g.: 高高兴兴上班去，平平安安回家来；举杯天地醉，中国贵州醇；今年20，明年18；”I do not want my house to be walled in on all sides and my windows to be stuffed
13、. I want the cultures of all lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible. But I refuse to be blown off my feet by any. (Mahatma Gandhi) 2.2.8 Performative （言语行为功能）Language is used to do things. E.g.: I declare the meeting open; I declare war; I sentence you to 10 years of hard labor; I na
14、me this ship Titanic; We elected you premier of the Peoples Republic of China.Other views performing “suggesting”:-在结束本文时，我们想向爱好泛读的人们提个建议。语言和社会生活息息相关；我们靠语言与他人协作；通过语言继承传统文化，接受外国先进思想和科学知识；利用语言来教育下一代，帮助他们创造美好的未来；语言又反过来表达着我们的个性和我们充当的各种角色。学一点语言学和应用语言学，有助于增强我们的语言意识，对我们的工作和生活都是有利的。我们不妨把此事作为一个项目，列入我们的日程。持之以
15、恒，必有所获。（王宗炎，2002：12）-关于Grice的研究。导读，顾名思义，引导读者读，它只能起个引见作用，如此而已。要把Grice读懂读透则完全靠读者自身了。为了帮助那些有志仔细研读Grice意欲获其真谛的读者，我们在此附上研究Grice的一些参考书目：Bach, K., 1994. Conversational implicature. In Mind and Language 9:124-1162.Davis, Wayne, 1992. Speaker meaning. In Linguistics and Philosophy, 15:223-253.Gazdar, G. 1979
16、. Pragmatics: Implicature, Presumption and Logical Form. New York: Academic Press.Grandy, Richard and Richard Warner, eds. 1986. Philosophical Grounds of Rationality: Intentions, Categories, Ends. Oxford: Clarendon Pres.Gu, Yueguo, 1993. Pragmatics and rhetoric: a collaborative approach to conversat
17、ion. In H. Parret, ed. Pretending to Communicate. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp.173-193.Leech, G. N., 1983. The Principles of Pragmatics. Longman.Levinson, S., 2000. Presumptive Meaning. The MIT Press.Neale, Stephen, 1992. Paul Grice and the philosophy of language. In Linguistics and Philosophy, 15:
18、509-559.Recanati, Francoise, 1989. The pragmatics of what is said. In Mind and Language, Vol.4:295-329.Schiffer, S. R., 1972. Meaning. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Sperber, D., and D. Wilson, 1986. Relevance. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.待添加的隐藏文字内容1Walker, Ralph C. S., 1975. Conversational implicatures. In S.
19、 Blackburn, ed. Meaning, Reference and Necessity. Cambridge University Press.还有三本哲学方面的书可读，以加深对哲学背景的的了解：Mage, Bryan, 1971. Modern British Philosophy. Herts: Paladin.Strawson, P. F.,963 (1952). Introduction to Logical Theory. Methuen & Co. Ltd.（顾曰国，2002：34-35）2.2.9 Other elaborationsTo Jean Aitchinson
20、 (1978), phatic communion is the primary function. Other minor functions include: seeking aesthetic goals (in writing poetry, man manipulates words in the same way as he might model clay or paint a picture) (p.29), release nervous tension by talking (people often mutter to themselves in anger and frustration).
