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1、Lesson 1The History and the Development of Protected Cultivation Selected and rewritten from“The History and Geography of the Greenhouse”，by HZvi Enoch and Yaeln Enoch，in Greenhouse Ecosystems20，echted by GStanhill and HZvi Enoch，a series book of Ecosystems ofthe World (Li Yaling，Shanxi Agricultural
2、 University) This lesson briefly describes the development of the greenhouse from antiquity to the present dayIt includes a discussion of protected cropping in cold-and hot-frames，glass cloches，lean-to houses，winter gardens，orangeries，conservatories and glasshouses in their varied forms，and plastic-
3、clad plant enclosures of all sizes ranging from low tunnels，walk-in tunnels，to large plastic houses For the purpose of this lesson，the greenhouse is defined as a transparent enclosure designed to grow or temporarily protect plantsThus the definition does not include enclosures for growing mushrooms
4、or tissue cultures. In antiquity，however，there were probably no greenhouses in the sense defined here，but there were various practices adopted to provide out-of-season flowers and vegetables. The cultivation of out-of-season plants was intensely studied in ancient Athens and RomeThis Can be seen for
5、 instance in the work of Theophrastus who lived from 372 to 287 BCE (before the common era)He mentioned moving plants into the peristyle (verandah in a closed courtyard of a Greek house) at night and heating soil by mixing it with decaying manure or compost. Growers in China，Mesopotamia，Egypt，Israel
6、，Greece and Rome grew valuable plants in pots and placed them indoors at night or during cold periods to protect themSometimes，plants were grown on wheelbarrdws that could easily be brought into a grotto，cellar or room at nightChinese plant culture may have included greenhouses that，according to tra
7、dition，go back to antiquityA Chinese greenhouse(Fig1-1 in the text book ) consisted of a brick wall oriented east-west. On its southernside, a transparent surface consisting of bamboo sticks covered with oiled paper was placed at an angle 30。-40。to the horizontalDuring the day，the brick wall became
8、heated by the sun and at night it released its heatIn addition，at night the paper window was covered by rush mats which acted as thermal insulation. Similar simple greenhouses are in use today，and it is claimed that they increase the night temperature by up to 6 In the 20th century，in both northwest
9、ern Europe and North America，there was a development from smaller to larger greenhouse units，usually even-span or ridge- and furrow multi-span housesThe Use of small electrical motors allowed automated climate control， including the opening of ventsHeating by thermo-siphon hot water circulation was
10、replaced by forced circulationElectrical pumps were used for irrigation and to operate shading systems，etc. Lean-to glasshouse slowly became obsolete and heating by smoke flues disappeared in the first decades of the 20th centuryHowever，these changes all occurred very graduallyAn example of this dev
11、elopment in the Netherlands is outlined below Simple over-winter sheds were used in Aalsmeer，the Netherlands，up to the 1920s, and store-frames，placed against the walls to protect vines in the Westland region were photographed in 1928 At the beginning of the 20th century，90of the area used for protec
12、ted cultivation in the Netherlands consisted of cold frames or hotbeds (heated by decomposition of manure and compost)By 1950，the area was still about 30，and in1964 it was 10 The use of Dutch lights was introduced at the beginning of the 20th centuryInitially，only single-span frames were used；double
13、-light frames date from about 1920Comparing the building practices in the Netherlands with those in the more advanced United States，one sees that in 1904，90of the glass-covered area in the Netherlands consisted of light frameswhile 25of the glass-covered area in the USA in the year 1900 was of prope
14、r glasshousesThe area under glass in the Netherlands increased from 1.6 km2 in 1904 to 4.0 km2 in 1912，to 329 km2 in 1950，reaching 60.2 km2 in 1964 Heating and carbon-dioxide fertilization of hotbed through the decomposition of mixtures of horse manure and plant residues was widely used in the Nethe
15、rlands at the beginning of the last century，and remained the comlTlon way for growing cucumbers and melons until horses were replaced by tractors in the years after the Second World War Claassen and Hazeloop (1933)mentioned that at that time flue heaters were only used by a few growers in the Nether
16、lands，whereas in Belgium，most of the 4.40 km2 used for fruit-growing in 1939 was heated by fluesDutch greenhouses suitable for a variety of crops were developed gradually over half a centuryIn 1900，at Loosduinen，a steel-framed greenhouse was built which became the forerunner for the“Venlo Warenhuis”
17、，a house that could be used for different cropsThis glasshouse，first built in 1937，consists of large sheets of glass held within the grooves of the two sides of a separating narrow steel bar，permitting the maximum transmission of lightVenlo-type structures (Fig1-2) were becoming popular in Westland
18、of the Netherlands in the 1950sBurning natural gas for the supply of carbon dioxide to greenhouse crops began in the Netherlands in 1961，following work done by JStender from the Institute of Horticultural Engineering in Wageningen，and became globally applied over the next decadeGlossary1glass cloche
19、园艺用钟形玻璃盖(吊钟形玻璃罩，一种通常呈钟状的罩子，主要用于保护植物避免严寒冻害)2cold-and hot-frame阳畦和温床31ean-to house一面坡温室，单屋面温室4winter garden冬季花园(或菜园)5orangery柑橘温室，橘园，养橘温室(a sheltered place，especiallv a greenhouse，used for the cultivation of orange trees in cool climates)6conservatory温室(a greenhouse。especially one in which plants are
20、arranged aesthetically for display，as at a botanical garden)7enclosure围住，围栏(四周有篱笆或围墙的场地，这里指房屋)；transparent enclosure透明房屋；plastic-clad plant enclosures塑料覆盖的植物房子8tunnel拱棚；low tunnel小拱棚；walk-in tunnel 中拱棚；large plastichouse塑料大棚9tissue culture组织培养10out-of-season flowers and vegetables反季节的花卉和蔬菜11common e
21、ra基督时代与公元相符合的时期(the period coinciding with the Christian era，可以缩写为CE)12decaying manure or compost腐熟的农家肥或堆肥13grotto洞穴，岩穴，人工洞室14cellar地窖，地下室15bamboo stick竹片，竹竿16oiled paper油纸17rush mat草席灯心草或类似物(通常是水生植物)如蒲草编制的席子18thermo-siphon热虹吸，热虹吸管19forced circulation强制循环20smoke flue烟道加热管；flue咒烟洞，烟道，暖气管；flue heater烟
22、道暖气管，烟道加热器21even-span等屋面的；single-span单跨；multi-span连跨，多跨22ndgeand furrow multi-span house嵴沟连跨温室23store-frame贮藏室24Dutch lights荷兰土温室(1ights在这里特指见光面)25double-light frame双面进光骨架26km2平方千米(=square kilometer，lkm2=100ha)27hotbed温床28Aalsmeer荷兰的一个地名(是世界著名的花卉拍卖中心所在地)29Westland荷兰西部地区(是温室集中发展的区域，又名glass city)30Ven
23、lo荷兰的一个地名是荷兰温室Venlo-type greenhouse(芬洛式温室)的起源地31Venlo warenhuis荷兰语，英语应为Venlo warehoUse32Loosduinen荷兰的一个地名33Mesopotamia美索不达米亚(地名，位于西南亚地区)QuestionsAPlease answer the following questions in English 1How is the greenhouse defined according to this lesson? 2What does a Chinese solar-greenhouse look like?
24、 3Please describe the development of greenhouse cultivation in the Netherlands 4Could you please think about the development of greenhouse cultivation in China? 5Please list protected facilities currently used in ChinaBPlease translate the following paragraphs into English 1设施园艺是指在不适宜园艺作物生长发育的寒冷或炎热季
25、节，利用保温、防寒或降温、防雨设施，人为地创造适宜园艺作物生长发育的小气候环境，使园艺作物的生产不受或少受自然季节的影响。由于其生产季节往往是在露地自然环境下难以生产的时节，故又称其为“反季节栽培”、“不时栽培”、“促成栽培”。 2风障、阳畦、温床、塑料棚及温室可为露地和保护地培育各种蔬菜幼苗，或保护耐寒性蔬菜的幼苗越冬，以便提早定植，获得早熟产品。 3从设施类型看，我国园艺设施栽培面积最大的是塑料拱棚和单屋面温室，尤其是不加温的节能型日光温室，已经成为我国温室的主导类型。目前大型温室或连栋温室的发展也开始起步。The Geographical Distribution of the Gree
26、nhousesSelected and rewritten from“The History and Geography of the Greenhouse”，by HZvi Enoch and Yaeln EnOch，in Greenhouse Ecosystems 20，edited by GStanhillandHZvi Enoch，a series book of Ecosystems of the World (Li Yaling，Shanxi Agricultural University) It is not simple to find reliable information
27、 about the world-wide area distribution of greenhousesThe total world-wide area was 43，143 ha (431 km2) in the 1970，s according to Hanan et a1(1978)；180，000 ha (1，800 km2) according to Meiigaard (1995)；265，800 ha (2，658 km2) greenhouses and high tunnels and 40700 ha (407 km2) glasshouses according t
28、o Wittwer and Castilla(1995) and 93570 ha (936 km2) greenhouses according to Boulard (1996)Wittwer (1993) estimated that there were 198，700 ha of plastic greenhouses and no less than 658，700 ha law tunnels and soil mulches in the worldThe area of greenhouses in individual countries is frequently not
29、ed，but the figure is typically the estimate of informed research, as for instance Amiram(1987)and Castilla and Hernandez (1995)In the following，we have based our estimates on a survey made by a Dutch horticultural marketing company，HORTIMARC BVAmsterdam， in November 1995This shows the total world-wi
30、de area ogreenhouses to be currently about 800，000 ha(8，000 km0)，or about 13 square meter per person in the WOrldObviouslymost of the worlds population(610persons)do use greenhouse DroductsThe largest area of protected cultivation can be found in China，which has 600，000 ha(6，000 km2)or about three-q
31、uarters of the total global areaNearlv allthe greenhouse area in China consists of simple plastic-clad houses，mostlv used for vegetable production around large citiesGlasshouses in China are onlv used to a minor extent， mainly for researchThe second-largest area of greenhouses，42，000 ha (420 km2)，is
32、 found in Japan(53of world area)，only 2，000 ha (20 km2) of which consists of glasshousesThis is followed by Italy with 28，750 ha (287km2)(36)，Spain with 25，000 ha (250 km2) (32) and the Netherlands with 10，100 ha (101 km2) (13)，most of which is glasshouses Thus，out of the total global greenhouse are
33、a，the bulk now consists of simple plastic houses，with the exception of a few European countries，such as the Netherlands，Italy，Germany，France and Denmark，in which a considerable proportion of protected cultivation still is in glasshousesThe general world-wide trend of the greenhouse ecosystem has thu
34、s gone full circle，from simple plant shelters，used two millennia ago，through complex and expensive glasshouses back to simple inexpensive plastic sheltersThe reason for this development can be found in the two alternatives to greenhouse cultivation by which the consumer can obtain out-of-season food
35、 and flower products，namely transport and storage The consumer requiring a year-round supply of fresh fruit，vegetables andflowers can be supplied either by： Changing the climate of a greenhouse covered by plastic or glass； Storing fruit, flowers and vegetable products after the normal harvest season
36、 until a later marketing date； Transporting the product across climate zonesfrom where it grows naturally to where it is marketed All three altematives are in use at the presentThe greenhouse ecosystems of northwestern Europe provide，at great cost，the climate changes needed to produce flowers(egrose
37、s) and vegetables(egtomatoes)in the winterConsumers can also receive the same goods by importing them from warmer countries Some plant products，for instance carnation flowers，can be stored for prolonged periodsThe stored carnations are then marketed at a period when their price is high Some crops ar
38、e grown outdoors and flown to their markets in other countries A typical example is orchidsA large proportion of the worldS orchid production is grown outdoors in Thailand，harvested，and flown to their markets in Japan，Australia，Europe and North AmericaThere is no lack of knowledge about how to grow
39、orchids in heated greenhouses in those countries where they are marketed，but apparently it does not pay to produce them locallyRoses are grown during the winter in Israel and elsewhere along the South coast of the Mediterranean，and Sold in Europe，exactly as roses from Egypt competed with locally pro
40、duced flowers from protected cultivation in Rome two millennia ago Enoch (1978) analyzed these three options-that is climate change，storage，and transport over climate zones-and calculated their different energy expendituresCurrently，economic considerations and not energy optimizations are paramountI
41、f it is cheaper to produce field crops，or to store or transport products, then this will be done in preference to making the necessary climate changes within greenhouseseven if it is more expensive in energetic terms There is every reason to expect that in the future transport over climate zones and
42、 longer storage will become more efficient and thus cheaper，thereby decreasing the commercial importance of the greenhouse aS an agricultural production system. Howevergreenhouses will almost certainly survive for the same reasons that first favored their developmentnamely as a provider of luxuries
43、for the rich，for their aesthetic and recreational importance，and their role in botanical and ecosystem researchGIossary1informed research已有的研究2camation flower荷兰石竹，康乃馨3energy expenditure能量支出，能量花费4in preference to优先于5agricuItural production system农业生产系统6orchid孢兰，兰花，淡紫色；砌淡紫色的Questions1Which countriesha
44、ve most of the protected cultivation in form of glasshouses?2What is the general world-wide trend of the greenhouse ecosystem? Please give some reasons3What are the three options for supplying fresh vegetables and flowers year-round?4Why can we assure that“greenhouses will almost certainly survive”?
45、5Please give some information about the development and changes of protected cultivation from 1980s to the present in ChinaLesson 2Goals of Greenhouse Climate ControlSelected and rewritten from Climate and Crop Growth and Development by H. Challa in General Principles of Protected cultivation, sylla
46、bus of Wageningen University (Li Yaling, Shanxi Agricultural University)The use of climate control can influence the most important above-ground growth factors. These factors are light, CO2 concentration, temperature and air-humidity. The quantity of light is determined in most cases by the weather
47、conditions outside the greenhouse, although the use of shades or supplementary lighting allows the grower to control this to some extent. Through the use of climate control, the grower has mote influence over the other factors. What are the most important goals in the control of greenhouse climate?
48、These can be summarized briefly:l high production;l optimal harvest planning;l optimal product quality;l risk management (prevention of calamities) ;l environmental goals (use of pesticides and energy) ;l optimal crop condition (on behalf of previously named goals) ;l cost management (energy, CO2, labor).At the same time, one must also consider that protected cultivation is an economic activity. Climate control must
