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1、Perspectives on Chinas Outward Foreign Direct InvestmentRandall MorckUniversity of Alberta School of Businessand NBERTel: (780) 492-5683randall.morckualberta.caBernard Yeung Stern School of BusinessNew York UniversityTel: (212) 998-0425byeungstern.nyu.eduMinyuan ZhaoRoss School of BusinessUniversity
2、 of MichiganTel: (734) 647-6978myzhaoumich.edu August 2007* The authors are grateful for the helpful comments from William Allen, Tom Pugel, Alan Rugman, Huang Jun, Myles Shaver, Jordan Siegel, Changqi Wu and two anonymous reviewers.Perspectives on Chinas Outward Foreign Direct InvestmentAbstractRec
3、ent economic data reveal that, at the infant stage, Chinas outward foreign direct investment (FDI) is biased towards tax havens and Southeast Asian countries and are mostly conducted by State controlled enterprises with government sanctioned monopoly status. Further examination of Chinas savings rat
4、e, corporate ownership structures, and bank dominated capital allocation suggests that, although a surge in Chinas outward FDI might be economically sensible, the most active players have incentives to conduct excessive outward FDI while capital constraints limit players that most likely have value-
5、creating FDI opportunities. We then discuss plausible firm-level justifications for Chinas outward FDI, its importance, and promising avenues for further research. I. Introduction Barely thirty years ago, most would consider China a poor agricultural economy. In 2008 China is hosting the Olympics to
6、 signal its emergence as a major economic power. This phenomenal development appropriately draws international business scholars attention. One especially curious characteristic of Chinas development path is a recent surge in its outward foreign direct investment (FDI). Successful and not-so-success
7、ful foreign acquisitions by companies like Haier, Lenovo, TCL and CNOOC (China National Offshore Oil Corporation) grab headlines. Much discussion is of the phenomenon itself. With over a trillion dollars in foreign reserves and increasing economic clout, China can send flagship companies abroad to a
8、cquire technologies, brands, resources, and better access to international markets. In some industries at least, rising capacity and intensifying domestic price competition are cutting profit margins, and Chinese managers see FDI as a way to upgrade technology and augment earnings. While these are a
9、ll legitimate strategies under broad ranges of circumstances, we believe it is important to identify specific drivers of the current surge in Chinese outward FDI, and to evaluate its broader implications with economic theories. In the following, we first sketch the empirical characteristics of China
10、s outward FDI: its size, target locations, and most important players. Then, we offer alternative perspectives on the subject matter. At the economy level, Chinas high savings rate, the behavior of its dominant state-controlled banks, and the enduring voice of the state in corporate governance might
11、 distort capital allocation in ways that generate outward FDI in certain sectors. Plausible distortions arise from both the identity and likely motives of the key players. Next, we explain why Chinas outward FDI will probably grow substantially as different players gain prominence. Given this, we ad
12、opt a firm-level perspective, and consider three non-exclusive theoretical explanations of Chinas outward FDI surge. Implications for corporate management and public policy are discussed in the conclusion. II. A Brief DescriptionThis section draws on various data sources to characterize Chinas outwa
13、rd FDI its size, target locations, and players. Chinas outward FDI is tinyFigure 1 tracks the surge in outward FDI from China. Starting from near zero in the seventies and early eighties, Chinese outward FDI exceeds $16 billion in 2006. Despite this impressive growth rate, the absolute magnitude rem
14、ains small. The IMF places Chinas 2005 purchasing power parity (PPP) adjusted GDP at $8.8 trillion, a bit over 70% of U.S. GDP ($12.2 trillion). However, Table 1 shows Chinas outward FDI that year to be only $12.3 billion a mere 5% of the comparable U.S. figure barely outpacing Singapore and falling
15、 well behind the Netherlands. Moreover, Chinas outward FDI stock accounts for only 0.6% of the world total at the end of 2005 a disproportionately small sum even among countries at similar stages of development, including Russia, another recent command economy in transition. This pattern of comparis
16、ons is particularly clear if we consider the outward FDI on a per capita basis. Chinas rapid growth in recent years might have attracted investment resources to stay home instead of seeking opportunities overseas. Clearly, then, Chinas outward FDI has substantial scope to grow in the long run and it
17、 is beginning to show a catching up tendency. Table 1. Comparison of Outward FDI across Countries(US$ Billions)Annual FDI FlowCumulative FDI200320042005200320042005Global total outward FDI flow 612.2730.38,196.99,732.2China outward FDI Total2.95.512.333.244.857.2 As % of global total0.5%0.8%1.7%0.4%
18、0.5%0.6%Developed CountriesJapan31.0335.5370.5France47.8Canada47.5307.8369.8Netherlands14.6Italy19.3238.9280.5UK65.41,128.61,378.1Spain54.3207.5332.6USA229.32,069.02,018.2Developing CountriesChile1.4Brazil9.554.664.4Mexico1.42.213.815.9South Korea3.44.834.539.3Malaysia1.42.129.713.8Singapore5.510.79
19、0.9100.9Russia5.19.651.881.9Data source: World Investment Report (2004) and World Investment Report (2005) of UNCTAD, and China Ministry of Commerce Target locations High-profile Chinese outward FDI includes Lenovos acquisition of IBMs personal computer unit and Minmetals bid for Noranda in Canada.
20、That these acquisition targets are located in the worlds most developed countries attracts much public attention, generating an illusion that China already contains world-class companies joining the ranks of the multinational giants based in developed countries. In reality, Chinese outward FDI targe
21、ts firms in all continents, with Figure 2 showing a distinct focus on South and East Asia and, to a lesser extent, Africa. In 2006, the 76 newly planned outward FDI projects in these two regions account for over 60% of the 125 total reported. In contrast, only about a third is in developed countries
22、. Data Source: FIAS/MIGA Firm Survey, World BankFigure 2. Number of Planned FDI Projects by Destination (2006)The stock of Chinas outward FDI is even more geographically concentrated. According to the annual statistics from the Ministry of Commerce, as of the end of 2005, Asia, Latin America and Afr
23、ica account for 71%, 20% and 3% of the FDI stock, respectively, and the shares for North American and Europe are each below 3%. Table 2 separates Chinas outward FDI volume by host country/area. The top destinations are Hong Kong and Caribbean tax havens, which consistently account for about 70% of t
24、he flow. These countries provide confidentiality to foreign investors, and so are commonly used by multinational firms to store wealth beyond the purview of tax authorities (Harris et al, 1993). FDI into these locations by Chinese firms might also be designed to hide wealth from tax authorities, oth
25、er authorities, or even public shareholders. Mainland companies may also invest in these countries, particularly in Hong Kong, because these locations give them convenient access to trade and financing opportunities. Cross listing abroad may also avail Chinese companies greater access to overseas ca
26、pital markets. However, merely cross-listing abroad need not constitute FDI. For example, so-called red chip stocks - Chinese SOE firms listing in Hong Kong, but locating all their assets on the mainland - do not constitute outward FDI to Hong Kong. A Chinese company must locate actual capital asset
27、s abroad to contribute to Chinas outward FDI. Moreover, Chinese subsidiaries in these countries might serve as holding companies for investments elsewhere; or even back into China. For example, a Chinese firms FDI into Hong Kong can rebound to China if its Hong Kong subsidiary acquires “foreign owne
28、d enterprise” (FOE) status in the mainland. FOEs pay lower taxes than domestic firms through the end of 2006. Unfortunately, we are not able to trace the funds pouring from China into tax havens to their final destinations. Indeed, we are not even sure if the published data adequately capture the fu
29、nds flowing from China into Hong Kong. Yet another possibility is that Chinese controlled subsidiaries in these countries veil spontaneous privatization, analogous to that documented by Lipton and Sachs (1990) in Eastern Europe. That is, the insiders of some Chinese firms might be moving wealth into
30、 tax havens to place it under their personal control. These numbers cast doubt on the extent to which economic fundamentals genuinely drive Chinas outward FDI. Table 2: Top Destinations of Chinas Outward FDI FlowsCountry/Region200320042005Amount (US$100M)% of TotalAmount (US$100M)% of TotalAmount (U
31、S$100M)% of TotalHong Kong11.540.4%26.347.8%34.227.9%Cayman Islands8.128.3%12.923.4%51.642.1%British Virgin Island2.17.4%3.97.0%12.310.0%South Korea1.55.4%0.40.7%5.94.8%Australian1.32.3%1.91.6%USA0.72.3%1.22.2%2.31.9%Russia0.31.1%0.81.4%2.01.6%Indonesia0.30.9%0.61.1%Sudan1.52.7%1.00.8%Total24.485.8%
32、48.788.6%77.090.7%Data source: China FDI Statistics Report, Ministry of Commerce and China Statistics BureauThe playersTable 3 ranks the thirty largest companies in China by their outward FDI in 2004 and 2005. Almost all are either listed or controlling major listed subsidiaries. Two observations fo
33、llow. First, the biggest sources of Chinese outward FDI are highly profitable listed SOEs. Lenovo is the only FDI heavyweight not explicitly state controlled. Private-sector firms may well conduct some outward FDI; but the scale is too small to register. Second, virtually every one of these signific
34、ant players has an officially-sanctioned monopoly in some major industry, such as natural resources or telecommunications. In 2005, the top ten SOEs account for over 75% of the total profit of Chinas 169 national SOEs National SOEs refer to SOEs controlled by the central government. In China, there
35、are SOEs controlled by various level of governments, e.g., provincial and municipal. , and 32% of the profit earned by the entire industrial sector (Table 4). Eight of the top ten qualify for inclusion in Table 3. Namely, the largest FDI players overlap substantially with the most profitable SOEs in
36、 China.Table 3: 30 Largest Companies Ranked by Outward FDINoYear 2004Year 20051China MobileChina National Petroleum Corp. 2China National Petroleum Corp. China National Offshore Oil Corp.3China National Offshore Oil Corp.China Mobile4China Resources (Holding) Co. Ltd.China Resources (Holding) Co. Lt
37、d.5COSCOCOSCO6CITICSINOPEC7SINOPECCITIC8China TelecomChina Merchant Group9Guangdong and Hongkong Investment HoldingChina National Cereal, Oil and Foodstuff10China Merchant GroupChina Construction Corp.11China NetComChina Aviation 12China Construction Corp.China Telecom13Lenovo HoldingSinoChem14China
38、 Aviation GroupChine NetCom15China Power Investment GroupChina Shipping16China MinmetalsGuangdong and Hongkong Investment17SinoChemShanghai Auto Group18China National Cereal, Oil and FoodstuffShum Yip Holding Company19China ShippingLenovo Holding20Sino Transportation GroupChina Power Investment Grou
39、p21Shanghai Auto GroupChina Minmetals22China Huaneng GroupSino Transportation Group23Beijing Orient Electrics GroupTCL24China World Best GroupBeijing Orient Electrics Group25TCL GroupChina Huaneng Group26Guangdong Hangyun GroupChina Poly27Shanghai Bao SteelShanghai Bao Steel28Beijing Jade Bird Group
40、China Shou Gang Group29China Nonferrous Metal Mining GroupChina Nonferrous Metal Mining Group30China Road and Bridge Corp.China North Industrial GroupData source: China FDI Statistics Report, Ministry of Commerce and China Statistics BureauTable 4: The Ten Most Profitable State Owned Enterprises in
41、2005RankCompany nameNet income (￥100M)Growth over last year (%)1China National Petroleum Corp. 1,756.146.12China Mobile782.121.93SINOPEC551.827.64China National Offshore Oil Corp.357.955.25China Telecom338.63.86Shen Hua Group Corp.221.085.07BaoSteel220.50.58COSCO200.464.29Aluminum Corp. of China Ltd
42、.150.251.310State Grid Corporation of China143.944.9Total of the top 104,722.540.05All 169 National SOEs6,276.527.9All 271,835 SOEs and non-state enterprises above designated size *14,802.5422.6* The designated size is defined by the National Bureau of Statistics as enterprises with annual revenue o
43、ver 5 million Yuan from principal businesses.Data source: State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission of the State Council, and China Statistic YearbookIn sum, the data indicate that Chinas outward FDI remains small relative to the economys size, and focuses on nearby developing cou
44、ntries and, quite recently, Africa. From 2003 to 2005, Chinese FDI that flowed further abroad poured into tax havens. Whether this is to avoid taxes or to mask other objectives is unclear. High-profile FDI bids for foreign natural resources firms, like that of Minmetals for Inco and CNOOCs bid for U
45、nocal, are likely responses to State prodding. On May 16, 2007, the Development and Reform Commission of China announced government support for outward FDI projects that can alleviate Chinas resource bottleneck, facilitate industrial upgrade, improve innovation capabilities, and increase the compete
46、nce of Chinese firms on the global market. To date, the main players are still large profitable SOEs with lucrative state-enforced monopolies. III. Perspectives at the Economy LevelThis section examines three features of Chinas macro environment that are likely connected with its outward FDI surge: a high savings rate, weak corporate governance, and distorted capital
