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1、AFFIXATION,Liu Xiao-yun,This chapter provides an overview of the affixational word-formation processes of English.First,it discusses how affixes can be distinguished from other entities.This is followed by an introduction to the methodological problems of data gathering for the study of affixation t
2、hrough dictionaries and electronic corpora.Then some general properties that characterize the system of English affixation are introduced,and a survey of a wide range of suffixes,prefixes is presented.Finally,we investigate cases of infixation,1.What is an affix?,In chapter 1 we defined affix as a b
3、ound morpheme that attaches to bases.Although this seems like a clear definition,there are at least two major problems.First,it is not always easy to say whether something is a bound morpheme or a free morpheme.second,it is not always obvious whether something should be regarded as a root or an affi
4、x.,1.What is an affix?,(1)There was never an error-free text,Cropper said.(2)Now the lanes were carless,lawless.(3)Arriving on her broomstick at the prison-like school gates,Mildred peered through the railings into the misty playground.(4)She had been a teacher,and made sure the girl went to a good
5、school:“my granny had more influence on me education-wise.”,error-free carlesslawlessprison-likeeducation-wise,suffixes?,free morphemes?,derivatives?,compounds?,In chapter 1 we defined affix as a bound morpheme that attaches to bases.we defined a bound morpheme as a morpheme that can only occur if a
6、ttached to some other morpheme.When we apply this definition,it turns out that all four morphemes also occur on their own,and should therefore be classified as free morphemes,and not as affixes.However,we should also test whether the free element really has the same meaning as the bound element.,1.W
7、hat is an affix?,Thus we have good evidence that in the case of-less and-wise,we have two homographic morphemes(同形异义词素)in each case,one being a suffix,the other a free morpheme.Thus,the suffix and the free morpheme do not only differ in meaning and boundness,but also in their syntactic category.,To
8、summarize,we can say that an element can occur both as part of a complex word and as a free morpheme.In such cases,only a careful analysis of its linguistic properties can reveal whether the element in question is really the same in both cases.If(and only if)there are significant differences between
9、 the two usages we can safely assume that we are dealing with two different items.If there are no significant differences,the element should be treated as a free morpheme and the pertinent complex word as a compound.,affixes?or bound roots?,a.biochemistry b.photograph c.geology biorhythm photoionize
10、 biology biowarfare photoanalysis neurology biography photovoltaic philology,whether the red elements should be regarded as affixes or as bound roots？,In chapter 1 we have loosely defined a root as the central meaningful element of the word,to which affixes can attach.But when can we call an element
11、 central,when non-central?This problem is prominent with a whole class of words which are formed on the basis of morphemes that are called neoclassical(新古典主义)elements.These elements are lexemes that are originally borrowed from Latin or Greek,but their combinations are of modern origin.,The only dif
12、ference between the neoclassical forms and native compounds is that the non-native elements are obligatorily bound.This is also the reason why the neoclassical elements are often called combining forms.To summarize our discussion of how do distinguish affixes from nonaffixational morphemes,we can sa
13、y that this distinction is not always straightforward,but that even in problematic cases it is possible to establish the nature of a complex word as either affixed or compounded on the basis of structural arguments.,2.How to investigate affixes:more on methodology,Reverse dictionaries such as Walker
14、(1924),Lehnert(1971),or Muthmann(1999).These dictionaries list words in alphabetical order according to their spelling from right to left.The reverse dictionary by Muthmann.It does not list the words in strictly orthographical order,but groups them according to their pronunciation or morphology.,Nee
15、dless to say,this kind of dictionary is extremely practical for the analysis of word-formation patterns,and is very convenient for the study of suffixes or for morphological research,but has the disadvantage of containing nothing but wordforms,hence not giving any additional information on these for
16、ms(e.g.meaning,first attestations,usage,pronunciation,part of speech,quotations,date of quotation,author of quotation,etc.),On the CD-ROM version of the OED,this wealth of information is organized not in serial form,but as a large data base,which has the considerable advantage that the different kin
17、ds of information contained in the dictionary can be accessed separately.Assume that we want to investigate the properties of the suffix-ment.Let us further assume that we also want to know whether this suffix is still productive.,database management no commentThere are problems.First,it contains it
18、ems that do not feature-ment at all.The trick is that we have to search each entry of these words to find the-ment derivative we are looking for.For example,in the entry database we find database management.This is,however,not a new-ment derivative,but rather a new compound.Furthermore,there are wor
19、ds on the list that end in the string-ment but which should certainly not be analyzed as belonging to this morphological category.like:no comment,We learn from this little exercise that we cannot successfully search the OED for a given affix,but only for the string of letters corresponding to the su
20、ffix.Thus we inevitably get words that only share the string of letters,but not the morpheme in question.it also became clear that the lists of raw data obtained in this way need to be further processed by hand to obtain sensible data sets,which can then be subjected to detailed structural analysis.
21、,3.General properties of English affixation,The general properties of English affixation are mostly of a phonological nature,but they have serious consequences for the properties of derived words and the combinability of affixes with roots and other affixes.,examples:,(1)modern postmodern(2)modify p
22、remodify(3)fminine fminze(4)selctive slectvity(5)mnager mnagerless(6)openmnded openmndedness(7)en.ter en.trance en.te.ring,conclusions:,The prefixes in do not change anything in the pronunciation or shape of the base words,the suffixes in have such an effect.The suffixes lead to the deletion of mate
23、rial at the end of the base,or they lead to a different stress pattern.The suffixes like-less or-ness not inflict phonological changes.The attachment of the suffixes-ance and-ing leads to the addition of a syllable.,All suffixes that inflict phonological changes on their base words begin in a vowel.
24、Among the suffixes that do not trigger any changes there is only one(-ish)which begins in a vowel,all others are consonant-initial.The term prosody（韵律）is used to refer to all phonological phenomena that concern phonological units larger than the individual sound.What concerns us here in the context
25、of suffixation are two units called syllable and prosodic word（韵律词）.,We all know that a syllable usually consists of 3 parts:onset,nucleus and coda.Onset and coda are in principle optional constituents of the syllable,but that the nucleus of a syllable must be obligatorily filled.syllables in genera
26、l have a strong tendency to have onsets.ba.na.na*ban.an.aho.ri.zon*hor.iz.ona.gen.da*ag.en.dasym.pa.thy*symp.ath.yin.ter.pret*int.erpr.et,not all consonants of the cluster necessarily end up in onset position.Thus,of the clusters mp(in sympathy),nt(in interpret)and rpr(in interpret),the first conson
27、ants form the coda of the preceding syllable,respectively,and the rest of the clusters form onsets.We can conclude our discussion by stating that word-internal consonants end up in onset position,unless they would form illegal syllable-initial combinations.,Syllable boundaries are marked by dots,wor
28、d boundaries by#:,a.back.#bone*ba.ck#bone snow.#drift*snow#d.rift car.#park*ca.r#parkb.mis.#un.der.stand*mi.s#un.der.stand dis.#or.ga.nize*di.s#or.ga.nize help.#less*hel.p#lessObviously,the syllable boundaries always coincide with the word boundaries and there must be a prosodic word boundary betwee
29、n the base and the affixes.,alter.nation candida.cyenvironmen.tal parasi.tichypothe.size mon.strousproduc.tive Japa.neseThis means that the vowel-initial suffixes integrate into the prosodic structure of the base word.In contrast to consonant-initial suffixes,they become part of the prosodic word.Th
30、ese suffixes can influence the prosodic structure of the derivative.,Both in compounding and in certain cases of affixation it is possible to coordinate two words by leaving out one element.This is sometimes called gapping,and gapping is only possible with affixes that do not form one prosodic word
31、together with their base.,etymology（词源）of suffix,Latinate suffixes that have been borrowed from Latin or Greek(such as-ify,-ate,ity,and-al)prefer Latinate bases and often have bound roots as bases,whereas native suffixes(such as-ship,-ful,-ness,and-hood),are indifferent to these kinds of distinction
32、s.Question:how do the speakers know whether a base or an affix is native or foreign?,Distinctions:(1)Most of the Latinate suffixes are vowel-initial whereas the native suffixes tend to be consonant-initial.(2)Most of the Latinate prefixes are secondarily stressed,whereas the native prefixes(such as
33、en-,be-,a-)tend to be unstressed.(3)Native roots are mostly monosyllabic(or disyllabic with an unstressed second syllable,as in water),while Latinate roots are mostly polysyllabic or occur as bound morphs.,How to classify these affixes?,(1)According to their position with regard to the base.(2)Accor
34、ding to the syntactic category of their base words.(3)According to whether an affix changes the syntactic category of its base word(4)According to the syntactic category of the derived form.Therefore group suffixes according to the output category and discuss prefixes in strictly alphabetical order.
35、,Conclusion:,often Latinate affixes do not readily combine with native affixes(e.g.*less-ity),but native suffixes are tolerant towards non-native affixes.,Although English is probably the best-described language in the world,the exact properties of many affixes are still not sufficiently well determined and there is certainly a need for more and more detailed investigations.,Thank You!,
