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1、2023/2/22,1,Testing for Language Teachers,2023/2/22,2,Chapter1:Introduction:Teaching and Testing,1.1 The relationship of teaching and testing-What is teaching?Teaching is the primary activityin learning.It answers what we want to know and how we can know it.,2023/2/22,3,-What is testing?,Testing is
2、the measurement of learning.It measures our language proficiency,discovers our achievement of course study,diagnose the strengths and weaknesses in learning and assist placement of students at different stages of teaching program.,2023/2/22,4,-In the process of learning,we start with teaching which
3、include the activities of explanation,demonstration calculation,etc.and end with testing which is to find out how we have learned and what abilities we have.Testing is the measurement and criteria for learning,thus it greatly influences teaching.It can cast positive or negative effect on teaching.So
4、metimes it can even dominate teaching.Then why not eliminate testing from teaching?,2023/2/22,5,The needs for tests,Information about peoples language ability is often very useful and sometimes necessary.Its difficult to imagine,for example:1.British and American universities accepting students from
5、 overseas without some knowledge of their proficiency in English.(TOEFL,GRE,UCLES:University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate,BEC,Business English Certificate,IELTS International English Language Test System.),2023/2/22,6,2.The same is true for organizations hiring interpreters or translato
6、rs,etc.They certainly need dependable measures of language ability.,2023/2/22,7,3.Within teaching systems,too,as long as it is thought appropriate for individuals to be given a statement for what they have achieved,then tests of some kind or other will be needed.,2023/2/22,8,.1.3 Backwash effect of
7、testing on teaching,The effect of testing on teaching and learning is known as backwash.Backwash can be harmful or beneficial.If a test is regarded as important then preparation for it can come to dominant all teaching and learning activities CET.M(Matriculation)ET高考.,2023/2/22,9,And if the test con
8、tent and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course,then there is likely to be harmful backwash.,2023/2/22,10,For example:,An instance of this would be where students are following an English course which is meant to train them in the language skills necessary for universit
9、y study in an English-speaking country,but where the language test which they have to take in order to be admitted to a university does not test those skills directly.If the skills of writing,for example,is tested only by multiple choice items,then there is great pressure to practice the skill of wr
10、iting itself.This is clearly undesirable.,2023/2/22,11,We have just looked at a case of harmful backwash.However,backwash need not always be harmful;indeed it can be positively beneficial.For example:,2023/2/22,12,The test CET was devised according to the Test Syllabus,which is based on the College
11、English Teaching Syllabus.After the new Teaching Syllabus had been designed,new books have been written,classes have been conducted differently and methods on teaching and learning have been changed greatly.The result of these changes is that by the years training,Chinese students reached a much hig
12、her standards in English than had even been achieved in the history of College English teaching.This is a case of beneficial backwash.,2023/2/22,13,1.4 Definition of terms,The term“measurement”,“test”,“evaluation”are often used synonymously;indeed they may,in practice,refer to the same activity.When
13、 we ask for an evaluation of an individuals language proficiency,for example,we are frequently given a test score.This attention to the superficial similarities among these terms,however,tends to obscure the distinctive characteristics of each,and an understanding of the distinctions among the terms
14、 is vital to the proper development and use of language tests.,2023/2/22,14,Measurement,Measurement in the social sciences is the process of qualifying the characteristics of persons according to explicit procedures and rules.This definition includes three distinguishing features:quantification(qual
15、itative descriptions,categories,rankings),characteristics(a particular class of cognitive or mental tasks that an individual is required to perform),and explicit rules and procedures.,2023/2/22,15,While measurement is frequently based on the naturalistic observation of behavior over a period of time
16、,such as in teacher rankings or grades,such naturalistic observations might not include samples of behavior that manifest special abilities or attributes.,2023/2/22,16,Test:A psychological or educational test is a procedure designed to elicit certain behavior from which one can make inferences about
17、 certain characteristics of individual.What distinguishes a test from other types of measurement is that it is designed to obtain a special sample of behavior.Tests are often for pedagogical purposes,either as a means of motivating students study,or as a means of reviewing material taught,in which c
18、ase no evaluative decision is made on the basis of the test results.Test may also be used for descriptive purposes.It is only when the results of tests are used for making decision that evaluation is involved.,2023/2/22,17,Evaluation:Evaluation can be defined as the systematic gathering of informati
19、on for the purpose of making decisions.One aspect of evaluation is the collection of reliable and relevant information.It does not necessarily entail testing.,2023/2/22,18,21 测量、测试与评估的关系,通常评估、测试及测量被用做同义词，特别是当问及某人的语言能力时，人们会容易接受他在某语言考试中得了多少分这样的答复。但事实上这三个词是有所区分的。Lyle.F.Bachman在他的语言测试要略（1990：19）中给测量（Mea
20、surement）下定义为：“在社会学中测量表示根据某明确步骤和规定进行量化某人特点的过程。”它包括三方面特征：量化、特定、明确的步骤和规定。Carroll在给心理测试或教育测试下定义时认为“考试是为能够得出特定行为而设计的步骤，通过实施这些步骤，我们可以推断某个人的某些特点”（Test）(1968:46).从这个定义中可以看出考试是测量的工具，是为得出对某个人的行为特殊样本而设计的。作为测量的一种形式，考试可以得到被测人的量化特点，而其有别于其它测量手段之处，则在于考试是为得到某特殊行为之样本而设计的。而测量却经常依据一段时间的自然观察，比如老师平时的打分或等级。这样的自然观察有可能并不能包
21、括代表某人特别能力或成就的样本。Weiss(1972)在给评估（Evaluation）下定义时说：“评估是指系统地搜集资料以做出决策”评估包括定量分析（如各种测试）、定性分析（如观察报告）、等级和价值判断等。,2023/2/22,19,因此评估不一定仅包括测试，也就是说可以包括测试，也可以不包括测试。测试可在很大程度上用于评估，但评估并不等于测试，反之亦然。测试通常为教学目的服务，或是作为激发学习动机的手段，或是作为学生对材料复习的手段。无论是哪种情况，评估决策都不是依据考试结果来做出的，而只有做出决定是依据考试结果时，评估才包括在内。这三者的关系可见下图：（L.F.Bachman.1990.
22、23）评估,评估,测量,测试,2023/2/22,20,15测试的基本特点,1 客观性测试是一种客观地进行测量的方法。要客观地进行测量，至少应该作到两点：1）必须承认测试的各项规定具有约束力。这些规定一经确定，就必须成为客观依据，任何人不得按主观意志随意改变。必须在平分时采取客观态度，严格按平分标准平分，自始至终用“一把尺子”。,2023/2/22,21,2 快速性,通过测试，可以迅速获取数据，了解有关情况。我们通过测试来了解受测者的知识和能力。测试采用抽样测量的方法，先选取样本，从测量样本得到数据，迅速推断出总体的特征。,2023/2/22,22,3间接性,测试是一种间接测量的手段。人的能力
23、是无法直接测量的，只能通过测量有关的可测行为来推断。人的语言能力（linguistic competence）,也只能借助可测的语言行为（linguistic performance）来了解。,2023/2/22,23,4相对性,测试得到的数据是相对的。它们是可比的，但在对比或解释这些数据时，不能离开特定的对象和关系，否则，数据的含义就模糊不清。,2023/2/22,24,就拿成绩来说，80分到底意味着什么？离开特定的对象和关系，就很难说得清楚。或许，是指部分（做对了的题所得分数与总体（满分）之比是80比100；或许80分就是满分，80分表示受测者全部做对了；或许80分的含义是与参加本次测试的
24、全体受测者相比，成绩比百分之八十的人要好；或许80还表示别的意思。,2023/2/22,25,5偶然性,测试有大量的偶然因素。首先，命题本身就包含偶然因素。一次测试通常不可能把学过的东西都包括在内。考什么，不考什么，命题人要根据测试的需要来决定。这个过程，是一个抽样（sampling）的过程。从教育统计学的角度来看，如果样本（samples）数量合理，抽样也合理，那么样本就能够反映总体（the total）。但是，某一次测试，由于题量小，抽样不一定合理，其测试值会在较大程度上偏离总体值。其次，测试阶段也带有偶然性。例如，考生有怯场心理，或因当时身体状况，或测试环境，或印卷质量、设备故障等因素而
25、影响正常发挥。反之，天时、地利、人和则使一部分考生考得比预料的好。再者，考后阶段也带有偶然性。就评阅试卷而言，尽管人人知道给分应当客观、公正，但实施时仍难以做到完全准确。,2023/2/22,26,6片面性,任何测试都难以十分全面的反映受测试者的情况。原因主要有二：1)教学过程中不仅有大量的可测现象，还有大量的不可测现象。通过测试进行的测量，其范围是有限的。教育测量本身就有局限性，只能测可测的现象，而且通常只作定量描述。作为教育测量的一种形式的测试，也只能测教育对象个体的可测现象，通常只作定量描述。,2023/2/22,27,2）抽样测量有局限性。受测者个体的教育现象，可测的有千千万万，而测试
26、受时间、场地、人员、设备、经费等因素的制约，抽样范围有限，样本也不可能过大过多，所以无法面面具到，时常有所遗漏。,2023/2/22,28,7社会性,测试是应社会需要产生的，它必须为社会服务。如果社会不需要某一测试，这个测试就难以存在。测试还有激励作用，在一定程度上起着“指挥棒”的作用，引导受试者朝一定方向努力。无论什么样的测试，都应以取得良好的社会效益为首要目的。舍此目的而滥用测试，势必助长投机取巧之风，败坏学风，败坏社会风气。1 Activities:Think of tests,with which you are familiar,what do you think the backw
27、ash effect of each of them is?Harmful or beneficial?What are your reasons for coming to these conclusions?,2023/2/22,29,Chapter2.Purpose and Arrangement of the Course-Testing as problem solving:an overview of the course.,2.1 Purpose of the course:The purpose of this course is to introduce readers to
28、 the idea of testing as problem solving and show how the content and structure of this course are designed to help you to become successful solvers of testing problems.,2023/2/22,30,What is the best test or the best testing technique?,2023/2/22,31,Each testing situation is unique,so sets a particula
29、r testing problem and the testers must provide the best solution to that problem:,The aims of this course are to equip us with the basic knowledge and techniques first to solve such problems,secondly to evaluate the solutions proposed or already implemented by others,and thirdly to argue persuasivel
30、y for improvements in testing practice where these seem necessary.,2023/2/22,32,In every situation the first step must be to state the testing problem as clearly as possible.Every testing problem can be expressed in the same general terms:we want to create a test or testing system,which will,2023/2/
31、22,33,-Consistently provides accurate measures of precisely the abilities in which we are interested.-Have a beneficial effect on teaching-Be economical in terms of time and Money.,The first thing that testers have to be clear about is the purpose of testing in a particular situation.Different purpo
32、ses will usually require different kinds of tests.The purposes of testing discussed here are:,2023/2/22,34,-To measure language proficiency regardless of any language courses that candidates may have followed.-To discover how far students have achieved the objectives of a course of study.-To diagnos
33、e students strengths and weaknesses,to identify what they know and what they do not know.-To assist placement of students by identifying the stage or part of teaching program most appropriate to their ability.,2023/2/22,35,2.2 Arrangement of the discussions in this course.,Chapter 3:Kinds of test an
34、d testingChapter 4:ValidityChapter 5:ReliabilityChapter 6:Achieving beneficial backwashChapter 7:Stages of test construction 命题流程Chapter 8:Test techniques and testing overall abilityChapter 9:Testing writingChapter 1 0:Testing oral abilityChapter 1 1:Testing readingChapter 1 2:Testing listeningChapt
35、er 1 3:Testing grammar and vocabularyChapter 1 4:Test administration,2023/2/22,36,Chapter 3:Kinds of test and testing,To fulfill the requirement of the different purposes,this chapter introduces different kinds of testing and test techniques.,2023/2/22,37,3.1 Proficiency tests,Proficiency tests are
36、designed to measure peoples ability in a language regardless of any training they may have had in that language.The content of a proficiency test,therefore,is not based on the content or objectives of language courses which people taking the test may have followed.Rather,it is based on a specificati
37、on of what candidates have to be able to do in the language in order to be considered proficient.,2023/2/22,38,What we mean by the word proficient?,In the case of some proficiency tests,proficient means having sufficient command of the language for a particular purpose.e.g.1.A test for translators,2
38、023/2/22,39,2.A test for students to follow a particular subject,such as arts,metallurgical science.Whatever the particular purpose to which the language is to be put,this will be reflected in the specification on the test content at an early stage of a tests development.,2023/2/22,40,Despite differ
39、ences between the tests of content and level of difficulty,all proficiency tests have in common the fact that they are not based on courses that Candidates may have previously taken.vivify v.赋予生命；使活泼；使生动vivisection n.(动物)活体解剖revive v.复活；苏醒；重演revival n.回复；苏醒；(R-)文艺复兴survive v.继续存在；较某人活得长久survival n.残
40、存；残存的人(物),词根:viv:生活；生存,2023/2/22,41,3.2 Achievement tests,Achievement tests are directly related to language courses,their purpose being to establish how successful individual students,groups of students,or the courses themselves have been in achieving objectives.There are two kinds:final achievemen
41、t tests and progress achievement tests.,归纳记忆:sense构成的短语,bring sb.to his senses 使某人恢复理性 come to ones senses(昏迷后)苏醒过来in ones right senses 有理性；神志清醒 out of ones senses 失去理智，精神错乱 in a sense 从某种意义上说 make sense of 理解，弄懂的意思,2023/2/22,42,-Final achievement tests are those administrated at the end of a course
42、 of study.The content of these tests must be related to the courses with which they are concerned.,2023/2/22,43,1.One approach of the content of final achievement test should be based directly on a detailed course syllabus or on the books and other materials used.This has been referred to as the syl
43、labus-content approach.,2023/2/22,44,2.The alternative approach is to base the test contest directly on the objectives of the course.-Progress achievement tests are intended to measure the progress that students are making.Since progress is towards the achievement of course objectives,these tests to
44、o should relate to objectives.But how?,2023/2/22,45,1.One way of measuring progress would be repeatedly to administer final achievement tests,the(hopefully)increasing scores indicating the progress made.2.Another way is to establish a series of well-defined short-term objectives(单元考试.Unit).These sho
45、uld make a clear progression towards the final achievement test based on course objectives.,2023/2/22,46,3.3 Diagnostic tests,Diagnostic tests are used to identify students strengths and weaknesses.They are intended primarily to ascertain what further teaching is necessary.At the level of broad lang
46、uage skills this is reasonably straightforward.We can be fairly confident of our ability to create test that will tell us that student is particularly weak in,say,speaking as opposed to reading in a language.Indeed existing proficiency tests may often prove adequate for this purpose.But its difficul
47、t to obtain a detailed analysis of a students command on a certain skill,say,grammar.,2023/2/22,47,3.4 Placement tests,Placement tests are intended to provide information which will help to place students at the stage(or in the part)of the teaching program most appropriate to their abilities.Typical
48、ly they are used to assign students to classes at different levels.,2023/2/22,48,3.5 Direct versus(与-相对)indirect testing,Testing is said to be direct when it requires the candidate to perform precisely the skill which we wish to measure e.g.If we want to know how well candidates can write compositio
49、ns,we get them to write compositions.If we want to know how well their pronounce a language,we get them speak etc.,2023/2/22,49,Direct testing is easier to carry out.It is relatively straightforward to create the conditions,and its likely to produce helpful backwash effect.,2023/2/22,50,Indirect tes
50、ting attempts to measure the abilities which underlie the skills in which we are interested,e.g.One section of TOEFL,was developed as an indirect measures of writing ability.It contains items of the following kind:e.g.1)At first the old woman seemed unwilling to accept anything that was offered her
