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1、外文翻译-在建筑学的设计构成和结构的材料 Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures Second EditionUSA Williams?Alan2 Structure in Design of Architecture And Structural Material,China Water Power Press,Beijing,2002 P3757钢筋混凝土结构设计第二版美艾伦?威廉斯著第二章,在建筑学的设计构成和结构的材料 ,中国水利水电出版社,北京,2002.P37页57页. Structure in Design of Architecture
2、 And Structural Material We have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and sp
3、ace forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final. Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at concep
4、tual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .In fact , we can say that an architects ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer The object of the schematic fe
5、ed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical
6、form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration
7、 option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions. At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of h
8、is or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme. At the preliminary level, the architects emphasis will
9、shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architects structural needs will shift to approximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification a
10、nd design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this
11、 effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts. When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall
12、design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasis will be on the detailed development of all subsystem specificsHere the role of specialists from various fields, including struct
13、ural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at
14、the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement or modification of the more general properties of a total-syste
15、m design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details. To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the
16、form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in suffici
17、ent depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interactionThis will mean a somewhat more specific form of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that provid
18、ing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The
19、 courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that h
20、ave now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water. Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of
21、iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile f
22、orce which, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress. Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then grou
23、nd into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or
24、 even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other. They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They there
25、fore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond the force that unites them that the steel
26、cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid. The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction p
27、ractices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer span
28、s. Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; t
29、hey had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations. Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riv
30、eting. A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of
31、pieces of steel by melting a steel material between them under high heat. Priestesss concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different me
32、thods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other and more common method, the prie
33、stesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Priestesss concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is a highly desirable material. Progressed concrete has made it possible to dev
34、elop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed在建筑学的设计构成和结构的材料 我们有,并且建筑师一定在一个如此的方法中处理活动,身体检查和代号需要的空间方面全部的表现正直被保证。 因此,他或她很好地想要想到进化如互相影响
35、的完全的系统和空间形成次要系统的建筑物环境。 是表现复杂的挑战, 和遇见它建筑师将会需要提供至少三层反馈思考的一个 hierarchic 设计程序: 概要的,初步的,和最后的。 如果在设计思考的概念上阶段,他或者她将避免被混乱 ,藉着能转移来自较多的基本考虑的注意的无数细节议题,如此的一个序位是必需的。事实上,我们能说建筑师的能力区别较多的基本形成比较详细的议题对如一个设计者的他成功是很重要的。 概要回馈水平的物体将产生并且评估全部的位置-计划, 活动-交互作用 , 和建筑物-结构的选项。做因此建筑师一定能够把重心集中在如实际形式的决定因素的位置上下文的基本属性的交互作用,空间的组织和象征。这
36、意谓 ,以概要的角度 ,建筑师可能首先构思而且做模型建筑物设计当必要表现的组织抽象化-在 teractions 中隔开。然后他或她可能探究抽象化的全部空间-形式含意。 如真实的建筑物结构选项开始浮现,它将会被修正为基本位置包括考虑情况。 如果设计者可以为达成全部的结构正直使他或者她的选项看得见而且考虑建设性的可行性,在概要的阶段,它也会是有帮助的和经济的他或她的方案。但是这将会需要建筑师及或 一个顾问能够使有概念总数-系统根据元素的细节结构的选项。如此全部的思考向后地可能是容易地喂改善空间-形式的方案。 在初步的水平, 建筑师的强调将会转移到关于的细述他的或她的更有希望概要的设计选项。在这里建
37、筑师的结构需要将会转移到接近特定次要系统选项的设计。 在现阶段完全的结构方案被把重心集中在确认和主要次要系统的设计被发展到中央水平特异性对那范围他们的主要几何学的, 成份, 和交谈式财产被建立。基本次要系统交互作用和设计冲突能如此在总数-系统目的的上下文被识别而且决定。 顾问能在这一个努力扮演一重要的角色; 这些初步行动-水平决定也可能造成要求精致或概要的观念方面的甚至主要的改变的反馈。 当设计者和客户在初步的水平对设计提议的可行性感到满意的时候,它意谓全部设计的基本问题被解决,而且细节不可能生产主要的变化。焦点再一次改变 ,和进入最后的水平之内的设计程序移动。在现阶段,强调将会在所有次要系统
38、特性的详细发育上。 来自各种不同的场, 包括结构工程, 的专家的角色在这里非常大的, 因为初步设计的所有细节一定被想出。 决定在这一个水平作出了可能生产反馈进入同高的 2 哪一将会造成变化。 然而, 如果水平我和 2 与洞察力一起处理, 那关系在全部的决定, 在概要的和初步的水平作出了之间, 和最后水平的特性应该是以致于总数重新设计不在疑问,宁可,整个的程序应该搬进来自创造和总数-系统设计观念的比较一般财产的精致 或修正 的一种进化的流行是一,对那肉由于必要元素和细节。 概述: 在第一水平,建筑师以概念上的角度一定首先建立基本概要的选项的全部空间-形式可行性。 在现阶段,和专家的合作可能是有帮
39、助的, 但是只有当如果以全部思考的形式。 在同高的 2, 建筑师一定能够识别被方案暗示的主要的次要系统需求和可观藉由接近主要成份特性的他们的交谈式可行性。那是, 主要次要系统需要的财产只被在充份的深度方面对非常他们的基本形式的固有相容性想出 -相关的和动作的交互作用。 这将会在第一水平中然后用专家意指略微比较特定形式的合作那。在同高的 3,和专家的建筑师和特定形式的合作然后那为必需生产顺从的工程文件的所有的元素设计特性提供。当然,这成功来自结构材料的发育。 比较早的时代的主要工程材料是木材和石工砖块,石头或砖瓦 , 和相似的材料。 课程或层约束连同灰泥或柏油,像物质的焦油或一些其他的装订代理人
40、一起。 希腊人和罗马人有时用了铁棍棒形骨针或者拍手加强他们的建筑物。 纵队的帕德教神殿在雅典对于现在已经生锈离开的铁酒吧在他们里面,举例来说,训练洞。也被用一个天然的齿骨质的罗马人呼叫困惑,从火山的灰制造了,那在水之下像石头一样的难变成了。 钢和齿骨质 , 二现代的大多数重要工程材料,在十九世纪内被介绍。 钢,基本上一个铁的合金和很少的碳已经被对如刀剑刀锋的特别使用限制了它的一个艰苦程序完成到那次。 在贝塞麦的发明在 1856 年处理之后,钢以低的价格在大的量中是可得的。 钢的巨大利益是它的可拉长力量, 当我们已经见到之时, 容易拉分别许多材料。 新的合金更进一步有, 趋向是哪一个在结果方面的
41、持续不断的改变让它变弱压迫力。 现代的齿骨质,叫做 Dorsetshire 监狱齿骨质, 在 1824 年被发明. 它是一个石灰石的混合和粘土, 被加热然后进入力量之内置于地面。它被混合在或者在工程的附近以砂位于,聚集小的石头,粉碎了岩石, 或铺碎石, 而且浇水制造具体物。 成分农产品的不同比例以不同的力量和重量凝结。 具体物非常用途广泛; 它能被倒, 抽, 或甚至进入各种的形状之内喷雾了。 而且然而钢有棒的可拉长的力量,具体物有在压缩下面的棒的力量。 因此,二物质补助彼此。 他们也以另外的方式补助彼此: 他们几乎有收缩和扩充的相同比率。 他们因此能在压缩和紧张是因素的情形中一起工作。 钢棍棒
42、形骨针正在具体物埋入制造加强具体的光线或者紧张将会发展的结构的具体物。 具体物和钢也形成如此的强烈束缚联合他们钢不能够在具体物里面滑倒的力量。 仍然另外的利益是钢在具体物不生锈。 酸使腐蚀钢,然而具体物有碱的化学反应,酸的相对事物。 结构钢的采用和加强了被引起主要的方面改变传统的工程练习的具体物。 它不再对使用石头的厚墙壁而言是必需的或者砖块对于多故事建筑物, 和它变成了非常简单的建立火-反抗的地板。 两者的这些变化服侍减少工程的费用。 它也变成了可能的用较棒的高度和较长的指距竖立建筑物。 因为现代结构的重量被钢的或者具体框架传达,墙壁不支援建筑物。 他们已经变得帐墙壁, 这不让天气进入而且让
43、光进去。 在比较早的钢或具体物框架建筑物中, 帐墙壁通常是用石工做成的; 他们有了生墙壁的坚硬神情。 今天,然而,帐墙壁时常是用轻量级材料 , 像是玻璃,铝或塑料做成的,在各种不同的组合。钢的工程的另外的一个进步一起是系结物的方法光线。 标准的方法正在用铆钉固定许多年。 一根铆钉用看起来像没有线的一个钝的螺丝钉一样的一个头是门闩。 它被加热,放在经过钢的块的洞之内了,而且一个第二个头藉由槌打它适当地支撑它在另一端被形成。 铆接现在藉由焊接已经主要地被代替, 那参加一起熔化的钢材料的钢的块在他们之间在高的发情之下。 尼具体物是一个改良形式的增强。 钢棍棒形骨针进入形状之内被弯曲给他们可拉长力量的必需程度。 他们然后习惯于尼具体物, 通常藉着二中的一不同的方法。 第一将离开符合钢棍棒形骨针的形状的具体的光线的频道。 当棍棒形骨针被管理过频道的时候,他们是然后以债券作保证的对具体物藉由用薄泥浆填充频道, 一个瘦的灰泥或绑代理人。 在另一个方法中, 尼使棍棒形骨针坚如钢以符合完成结构的形状的形式的较低的部份被放置, 和具体物在他们周围被倒。 尼的具体物使用比较少的钢和比较不具体物。 因为它是高度地令人想要的材料。促进了具体物已经表现用不寻常的形状发展建筑物是可能的,像一些现代人,游戏竞技场,藉由被任何的阻隔支持不打破的大的空间。 使用对于这,相对地新的结构方法正在不变地被发展。
