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1、Chapter Seven Convincing the Audience,Part Constructing Strong Essays,Introduction,Step 1 Adopting a Reasonable Tone,Step 2 Selecting an Appropriate Style,Step 3 Making Assertions Believable,Step 4 Supporting the Assertions,Step 5 Reasoning Effectively,Whenever you write,consider your specific audie
2、nce,that is,the people who will read what you have written.Knowing who youre writing to is fundamental to the success of any message,which will help you to communicate clearly and effectively.Analyzing your audience is important for more reasons than simply determining the content and approach of yo
3、ur message.The recipient of your message should influence even the medium you choose for delivering it.The statement and supporting details we want to use to support them depends heavily on our audiences interest and our understanding of them.The attitude that we express,Introduction,toward our subj
4、ect，the tone that we set and the style we select,all depend on our readers expectations and the kind of desirable impression we want to leave on them.,Introduction,Ways to Convince the Audience,Step 1 Adopting a Reasonable Tone,In order to convince the audience,you should also consider the tone of y
5、our writing,which depends on your subject matter and on your audience.Tone is your style or manner of expression.It is revealed by your choice of words and grammatical structures and even the length of your sentences.The tone of a piece of writing can be,for example,serious,amusing,personal,or imper
6、sonal.A piece of writing may convey a tone that is gay or somber,sentimental or cynical,reverent or mocking,literal or ironic,or any shading of emotion that represents a human attitude.,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,Study the passages below and try to recognize the tone of the writing.,Activity,The mal
7、e fiddler crab has a somewhat easier time,but it can hardly be said that he is sitting pretty.He has one enormously large and powerful claw,usually brilliantly colored,and you might suppose that all he had to do was reach out and grab some passing cutie.The very earliest fiddler crabs may have tried
8、 this,but,if so,they got slapped for their pains.A female fiddler crab will not tolerate any caveman stuff;She never has,Passage 1,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,and she doesnt intend to start now.To attract a female,a fiddler crab has to stand on tiptoe and brandish his claw in the air.If any female in
9、 the neighborhood is interestedand youd be surprised how many are not-she comes over and engages him in light badinage,for which he is not in the mood.As many as a hundred females may pass the time of day with him and go on about their business.By nightfall of an average courting day,a fiddler crab
10、who has been standing on tiptoe for eight or ten hours waving a heavy claw in the air is in pretty sad shape.As in the case of the males of all species,however,he gets out of bed next morning,dashes some water on his face,and tries again.,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,Comment
11、:This is a passage in which James Thurber writes in a humorous tone about the problems faced by the males of many species in courting females.Word choice plays an important part in creating the comic tone of this passage.The incongruity of such phrases as sitting pretty,passing cutie,caveman stuff,p
12、retty sad shape,and gets out of bed in referring to the fiddler crab quite clearly points up the humor here.By applying essentially human slang terms to animals,Thurber sets the comic tone for his essay on the courtship of females and males.,In some cases,the pressure of all those doubting eyes upon
13、 his copy is more than the writer can bear.When the galleys of a piece are placed in front of him,covered with scores,perhaps hundreds,of penciled hen-tracks of inquiry,suggestion,and correction,he may sense not the glory of creation but the threat of being stung to death by an army of gnats.Upon wh
14、ich he may think of nothing better to do than lower his head onto his blotter and burst into tears.Thanks to the hen-tracks and their consequences,the piece will be much improved,but the author of it will be pitched into a state of graver self-doubt than ever.Poor devil,Passage 2,Adopting a Reasonab
15、le Tone,he will type out his name on a sheet of paper and stare at it long and long,with dumb uncertainty.It looks-oh,Christ!-his name looks as if it could stand some working on.,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,Comment:Here comes a passage by a professional writer,Brendan Gill,who,after working for almos
16、t forty years on The New Yorker magazine staff,still feels insecure about his ability to write well.In this passage,Brendan Gill describes the plight faced by professional writers like him.Irony(being stung to death by an army of gnats),melodrama(lower his head.and burst into tears),and incongruity(
17、his name looks as if it could stand some working on)combine in Gills writing to create a witty and urbane tone.,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,Conclusion:When considering the tone of our own writing,we should remember these points:,Adopt a tone appropriate to your subject matter.Avoid sudden shifts in t
18、one within your paper.Be personal in your writing but not familiar.Avoid being either overly modest or excessively boastful.Avoid exaggeration.Handle humor with special restraint.Do not become pompous or over-solemn.Do not try to achieve a certain tone in your writing by over-punctuating.,Adopting a
19、 Reasonable Tone,Identify the tone of the passage by Mark Twain.His recipe for a breakfast dish is not so easy to recognize.,Activity,Exercises for Tone,To make this excellent breakfast dish,proceed as follows:Take a sufficiency of water and a sufficiency of flour,and construct a bullet-proof dough.
20、Work this into the form of a disk,with the edges turned up some three-fourths of an inch.Toughen and kiln-dry it a couple of days in a mild but unvarying temperature.Construct a cover for this redoubt in the same way and,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,of the same material.Fill with stewed dried apples;a
21、ggravate with cloves,lemon peels,and slabs of citron;add two portions of New England sugar,then solder on the lid and set in a safe place till it petrifies.Serve cold at breakfast and invite your enemy.,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,2.Compare the two versions of the same passage written in different to
22、nes A and B,and state the differences.,A:Pornography is vile and putrid,the cause of all moral decay and violence in America.It unleashes ugly desires and reduces men and women to their sex organs!It separates the human bond between love and sex.Consequently,it calls for the death of humanity.Pornog
23、raphy must not be tolerated!No one could doubt the writers sincerity,but his shrill tone is repellent.He uses absolute words like all that allow no exceptions.He punctuates sentences with exclamation marks,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,instead of allowing the strength of his ideas to convey his intensi
24、ty.And he employs words and phrases like putrid,ugly,and death of humanity that have strong emotional connotations but little rational appeal.If the writer continues this approach throughout the essay,readers who do not already agree with him probably will not be persuaded.,B:Pornography is a form o
25、f free expression that causes a serious social and moral problem.Pornography may well provoke sexual crimes,and it certainly damages the moral tone of society.In addition,it degrades sexual relationships between men and women,substituting,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,mechanical action for love.Because
26、 pornography is detrimental to society and to personal relations,it should be strictly controlled,even if free expression must be curtailed.The writers opinion has not changed,and we still do not doubt the sincerity of his view.But by casting his ideas in a calmer tone,the writer has invited us to s
27、ee both him and his argument as reasonable.,Adopting a Reasonable Tone,Essentially,a writers style is an expression of his individuality.But his style need not be the same at all times.The appropriateness of style varies according to time,place,occasion,subject,the audience,and purpose of a piece of
28、 writing.The varying lengths and grammatical structures of his sentences are also fundamental in forming his style.,Step 2 Selecting an Appropriate Style,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Let us now examine two model essays in order to better understand what the components of an individual writing styl
29、e are.,Activity,Without attempting to guess further studies will show,I believe that the answer to the question of how these anemic fishes have managed to evolve is to be found in their unique ecological setting.In the case of the ice fish,for example,its major physiological asset an unusually large
30、 volume of blood circulation by itself would probably not be enough to keep the animal alive,Passage 1,Selecting an Appropriate Style,in temperate waters.Only when this characteristic is combined with the Antarctics low and stable water temperature and that environments abundant supply of food and o
31、xygen is the survival of these peculiar animals possible.In fact,it is hard to imagine any other marine or freshwater environment that would offer a similar chance of survival should another family of anemic fishes begin to evolve elsewhere in the world.Juhan T.Ruud,“The Ice Fish,”Scientific America
32、n,November 1965,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Comment:The above passage is a scientific description of a species of anemic fish,the ice fish.The style of this passage is quite formal,its vocabulary somewhat scientific.Sentences are rather long and moderately complex.The writer is objective,logical,
33、and direct.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,The all-American radio heroes,from the Lone Ranger to Jack Armstrong,were for many reasons more sexless than their movie counterparts.Emotion was out,and sex wasnt for kids anyhow.The Shadow,who learned how to cloud mens minds in the Orient(dig?),may have h
34、ad a little thing going with Margo Lane(not to be confused with Lois Lane,friend of Clark Kent,alias Superman),just as Perry Mason would,in later years of television,become a little cozy with Della Street.But for the most part,love and its problems were relegated to the soap operas,where the America
35、nism was either,Passage 1,Selecting an Appropriate Style,institutional,honoring the family and the small town,or nonexistent,leaving the mythic American unencumbered,either by family or by feeling,to press the fight.,Comment:This one is a sociological study of American society.Notable in this passag
36、e is the sharp contrast in style between the opening looseness of diction and the elevated word choice at the end.Even though many writers avoid using colloquialisms because they quickly go out of fashion,the writer felt free to include one(dig),perhaps to reproduce more accurately the texture of th
37、e time.Having done this,he swings,Selecting an Appropriate Style,dramatically from relying on informal language(anyhow,had a thing going,become a little cozy with)to using formal words that suggest the university classroom(relegated,mythic,unencumbered).,Notice:An appropriate style can facilitate co
38、mprehension of our statement,and acceptance of our points as well.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Discussion:Style can be classified into many kinds,as style analysts do.But in terms of practical writing,it suffices if we know the general four kinds:standard,safe for any level of usage;formal;inform
39、al;and colloquial.,We usually use the formal style in much of our general academic and business writing.On such a level all terms we use should be standard,and thus appropriate.Complete formal writing requires one to write in the third person.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Compare different kinds o
40、f style in the examples below.,Activity,Formal:One can observe.，this writer believes.,Informal:We can observe.,you can see.,Example 1,Example 2,Formal:I cannot help questioning Melvins intentions.,Informal:I cant help but question Melvins intentions.Cant help but:technically,this expression is a dou
41、ble negative;hence some people object to it in formal writing.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Example 3,Formal:We are accustomed to the weather here.,Informal:We are used to the weather here.,Discussion:Colloquial style,in which slang is the extreme instance,is used only in speech，between friends an
42、d in casual situations.Dont write busted if you mean broke in formal writing.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Study the following examples to see how colloquial style is used.,Activity,Colloquial:Chris busted his leg skiing.,Standard:Chris broke his leg skiing.,Example 1,Example 2,Colloquial:Lumas ba
43、lloon got busted,Standard:Lumas balloon burst.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Colloquial:Arnie enthuses endlessly about the benefits of jogging.(“Enthuse,”now acceptable in speech,is not used in writing because it still offends many people.),Standard:Arnie is endlessly enthusiastic about the benefit
44、s of jogging.,Example 3,Example 4,Colloquial:They chucked a stone at the cop,and then did a bunk with the loot.,Standard:After throwing a stone at the police,they ran away with the money.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Very formal:After casting a stone at the police officer,they absconded with the m
45、oney.,Discussion:Some words or phrases are colloquial such as the word quote(when used as a shortening of quotation or quotation marks,though it is a standard English when used as a verb),kind of and sort of meaning somewhat.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Study the following examples to see what ma
46、kes a difference between style.,Activity,Colloquial:Moose is sort of snarly today.,Standard:Moose is somewhat touchy today.,Example 1,Notice:Short adverbs without the-ly are informal and with the-ly are formal.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Informal:Drive slow.,Yell loud.,Example 2,Formal:Drive slo
47、wly.,Yell loudly.,Notice:Punctuation sometimes makes a difference between styles,for instance a colon following a series at the beginning of a sentence makes the sentence it appears in very formal.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Example 3,Very formal:Patience,sympathy,endurance,selflessness:these ar
48、e what good mothers are made of.,Formal:Patience,sympathy,endurance,selflessnessthese are what good mothers are made of.,Selecting an Appropriate Style,Activity,Exercises for Style,Read each of the following three passages carefully and then analyze the authors style.,This passage describes a moment
49、 of fantasy in a childrens book,in which Alice is falling down a seemingly bottomless pit.,Down,down,down.There was nothing else to do,so Alice soon began talking again.“Dinahll miss me very much tonight,I should think!”(Dinah was the cat.)“I hope they will remember her saucer of milk at teatime.Din
50、ah,my dear!I wish you were down here with me!,Selecting an Appropriate Style,There are no mice in the air,Im afraid,but you might catch a bat,and thats very like a mouse,you know.But do cats eat bats,I wonder?”And here Alice began to get rather sleepy,and went on saying to herself,in a dreamy sort o
