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1、Chinese Multinationals Work&Employment Models:A Review&Research Agenda,Chris Smith Jos Gamble and Yu ZhengSchool of Management,Outline,Question of transfer in MNCsSSD frameworkChina CaseDiversity in transfer likelySome potential forms of transferLimited current researchConclusions,1,Transfer of“Work
2、 Organisation”&Employment Relations,2,Production and work best practiceOrganisational fieldInstitutions and actors spreading ideasTransfer theory in generalForward and Reverse DiffusionRecent developments Internationalisation of labour marketsLabour flows increasingly independent of firmMNCs flexibi
3、lization/causalisation of labour mixed contractsInternational recruitment agenciesNational prefix for MNCs action problematic,Recent Stories of Transfer,Americanisation 50s,60s,-Europe,Asia tied to assumed superiority of American ways-build on practices going back to diffusion of Scientific Manageme
4、nt,Taylorism stability within firms)Japan 80s Global Japanization?long-term employment,supplier relations,work regime,quality management etc.Features-dominant home country practice is exported(dominance effect)Widespread academic and research support for idea of national champions role of globalisat
5、ion of management educationNational story is selective e.g.Japanization=large firm story,3,SSD:An Analytical Framework(Smith 2005),Work,employment,HRM management practices are shaped by three structural forces.But actors within workplaces must actively engage with these practices;not determinism,but
6、 reflexivity and actor-centred action,4,System Effects political economy capitalism,state socialism,common structures and social relationForms VoC framework capitalist formsDevelopmental process inequality between developed and developing countries affect orientation towards transfer/learning/domina
7、nceSociety Effects national institutional differences home and host societiesDominance Effects practices of dominant economies,dominant firms,become best practiceCorporate Level Effects relative autonomy of companies as political and institutional spaces to enact,facilitate and block processes of le
8、arning and transfer-processual dynamics(Gamble 2010),Interplay of Practices System,Society&Dominance,The SSD frameworkstresses the interplay of different forces.A set of practices such as lean production,for example,may have begun as a dominant idea and then become more systemic in nature,and unders
9、tanding its nature and effects is assisted by considering the relevant linkages,as opposed to treating it either as a specifically Japanese practice or simply as some context-free approach that will have the same meaning and effects anywhere(Elger and Smith 2005).”Source Edwards et al 2013:607,5,The
10、“China”Story,6,Systems-Transformation from state socialism to market capitalism;mixed system features,e.g.population controls formed in SS era remain in market era;movement towards neo-liberalism;but strong institutions and weak market relations(e.g.social networks,schools-firms linked in(Smith and
11、Chan).Society Common heritage and great economic and geographical diversity of firm-level practicesDeveloping country learning markets,making capitalism,inwards FDI and outwards FDISOEs decline,reform&revitalisationDominance UnclearSOEs strong in Outward FDILate appearance of large private firms-nat
12、ional champions?,SSD and Internationalisation of Chinese MNCs,Literature on Chinese OFDI and internationalisation divides:System-SOEs as only MNCs;private firms perceived as always connected to the Chinese state(e.g.Huawei in US);Chinese MNCs as political actors;misconception that Chinese workers in
13、 Africa are convicts(Hairong Lenovo.,7,Researching Chinese Outward FDI IB lit,Deng(2013)analysis of 138 articles on Chinese OFDI IB papers have nothing to say about processes within the firms,especially work and employment relations.In Deng there are no references to workers,work or employment in th
14、e 138 papers on Chinese OFDI57 quantitative empirical studies;24 use survey or questionnaire data mainly at the firm level;33 use archival(primarily cross-sectional)datasets at a country or industry level using official Chinese government aggregate data,Thomson Financial SDC database,or the cross-bo
15、rder M&As by listed firms in the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchanges)21 qualitative empirical works,most use multiple cases or in-depth case studies and concentrate on prominent Chinese companies such as Haier,Lenovo,TCL,and Huawei.”60 conceptual or perspective papers appear in cross-cultural and
16、international journals.They tend to focus on the macroeconomic analysis of Chinese OFDI trends and patterns and particularly in host countries such as the U.S.and African countries Source:Deng(2013:515),8,China Case Transfer&Internationalisation,There are theoretical problems with the integrated mod
17、els of transfer,but empirically the China case challenges the idea of national integrated models that have been central to transfer debate see recent Japanization literature.China does not present a single integrated business model,but several models state-owned enterprises,private business,village
18、and townships enterprises,foreign-invested companies(joint ventures).Zhang and Peck(2013)from a regional economy perspective elaborate 5 models of Chinese capitalism(regional sub-national business models)Guangdong,Sunan(Southern Jiangsu Province),Wenzhou(Zhejiang P.),Zhongguancun(Beijing Silicon Val
19、ley),and Chongqing(City)business models.Therefore in the Chinese Case we are dealing with an empirically more complicated story.Source:Elger and Smith,2005;Peck and Theodore,2007;Zhang and Peck 2012,2013),9,China GDP by province(Economist 2011),China exports by province(Economist 2011),China Case co
20、nt.,12,We might therefore have multiple transfer stories or models and not a single Sinification narrative of internationalisation or transfer.Models are in contradiction and conflict with each other;some are rising,others being challenged;some internationalising Guangdong model-flexible production,
21、low regulation,low wages,dormitory labour regime(Smith,2003);Others based around local resources,and political bargaining within CCP e.g.Chongqing Model;Some have state as central actor,which may inhibit internationalisation but this has not been the case with investments in Africa and other countri
22、es by Chinese SOE companies are resource seekers and have developed distinctive management systems based on a simple transfer of enclave casual labour regime(CK Lee,2009),Chinese Outward FDI,Chinese OFDI small in scale:growth is impressive;in 2011,Chinese OFDI totalled USD65 billion with an average
23、annual growth rate in the previous five years of 38.6%and the stock of Chinese OFDI amounted to USD366 billion(UNCTAD,2012).Chinese OFDI is often compared to Japanese OFDI in the 1980s and South Korean OFDI in the 1990s,but China is much less developed than were Japan and Korea.Chinas GDP per capita
24、 is about USD5,500,whereas Japans GDP per capita reached USD12,000 in the 1980s and Koreas was USD10,000 in the 1990s.Chinas OFDI remains heavily focused on developing countries(but this changing);is resource focused,(but this is also changing)and unlike Western FDI,it includes significant investmen
25、t from State Owned Enterprises,especially in Africa and developing regions.Europe and the US take around 25%each of annual Chinese OFDI.In Europe by number,in 2011 75%of investments are by private firms;but by value,72%originates from state-owned enterprises(Hanemann and Rosen 2012:4),13,Chinas ODI
26、and cross-border acquisitions,1982-2006(Nicolas&Thomsen,2008),14,Chinese OFDI in the EU-27 vs.the US,2000-2012(Hkansson,2013),15,China whats inside goes outside?,The outcome of some 30 years of theorising and empirical engagement with reform and transformation has been mixed.Lee(2007)divides sunrise
27、 from sunset industries each with their own labour regimes,labour supply and working class politics.How does this divide affect internationalisation?Some see in China a dominant form of bloody Taylorism,epitomised by one reading of the work regime enunciated by the Taiwanese firm Foxconn military di
28、scipline and ideology;task simplification;intensive work combining production and reproduction of labour power in huge industrial compounds that function like enclosed cities(Pun and Chan,2010;Pun et al 2013)Huawei with longer-term relations between workers;limited use of agency workers;more innovat
29、ion,more investment in skills and training and share ownership between workers and firm tells another story(Rui,forthcoming)Which represents the Chinese labour process?,16,China-Motivations&Models of Transfer,Go to know knowledge seeking identified as key motive of Chinese Outward Foreign Direct Inv
30、estment Go to dodge investing overseas to get away from Chinese practice at home or hide income(Tax Havens)Go to prolong Internationalisation to perpetuate home country practices which are under pressure in the home territoryGo as the whole show-the state-owned investmentsGo to return-repatriating o
31、r reversing assets from acquisitions back to China to capitalise on continued home country advantages(low cost production model/dormitory labour regime)-Volvo case,17,Go to know knowledge seeking,Go to know knowledge seeking identified as key motive of Chinese OFDI(Child and Rodrigues)Early case stu
32、dies on Chinese firms in City of London(Miao Zhang,2003)Chinese managers learnt was how to enrich themselves as individuals;opportunistic investments without organisational constraints around the managerial elite,allowed managers to learn and run away from the firms that all went bust.,18,Go to know
33、 knowledge seeking,Huawei case Turkey subsidiary of Huawei in Istanbul,there were 1000 employees,but 200 of them were Chinese-high expatriate rate(1 in 5)has to be unique in internationalisation,even in a country like Turkey were wage costs will not be as high as in Western Europe.Huaweis domestic e
34、mployees are greater than those working in the 140 overseas subsidiaries,but more revenue was generated overseas than in the PRC since 2008.Like many Chinese MNCs it has a competitive advantage in having a large pool of inexpensive workers in the home territory,and therefore one of the reasons for O
35、FDI is not to escape the high costs of domestic labour,as is the case with many Western MNCs.They will not impose an ideological no union policy;they are more pragmatic,and work within a countrys culture,19,Go to prolong Internationalisation is push factor-within and beyond China,Guangdong model in
36、Pearl River Delta change upward pressure on wages;rising costs of materials;rise in the value of the Yuan;labour legislation-2008/2009 Labour Contract Law;unprecedented external dynamics(e.g.the slackening global demand after the 2008 global financial crisis),have further increased pressure on model
37、;Guangdong local government desire to move up value chain(Zhu and He,2013)Firms that did not close,moved within China to cheaper productions sites,and new entrants went west and not to the coast;there was also some internationalisation to other Asian countries in order to maintain prolong the Guangd
38、ong model(cheap labour)active in Vietnam and Malaysia(Zhang,2012;Miu,2013);Foxconn in Czech Republic(Sacchetto and Andrijasevic,2013)(using migrant labour from Romania and Bulgaria in order to lower labour costs;employment through agencies;segmentation of workforce transferred;rigid labour controls,
39、20,Go as the whole show-the state-owned investments,Chinese Capitalist Peculiarities in Africa(CK Lee)Chinese“Special Economic Zones”in Africa another employer or a new imperialism?Outbid other firms for mining contracts by 30%on average due to:Delayed payment-paid at end of contract(2years)2 year p
40、osting Migrant agency workers from surplus labour in China bonded management tied to firm;living at work;men on their own,reduced costs of reproduction;constrained mobility;all Management and professional jobs are Chinese What we call dormitory labour regime(Smith,2003)is internationalised by Chines
41、e firms.State to state patronage between Chinese SOEs and African statesClosed enclave special economic zones these can be an example of a space within a country where practices from another national model can be implemented with less pressure from local institutional forces.Some criticisms see Moha
42、n(2013),21,Go as the whole show cont.,Not Just in Africa Singapore caseChinese Construction Company(state-owned)in Singapore where the majority of workforce(5000)were contracted from China.Scarcity of building labour in Singapore,but politics,with reluctance to employ Malaysians many of whom prefer
43、to work in the service sector(Rui).Chinese workers were working away from home,not tied into local solidarities as internal-migrant workers and on 2 year contracts,22,Go to return-Reverse Transfer,Zhang and Edwards(2007)assumes rational transfer institutional fields of transfer.,23,Go to return Cont
44、inue access to labour surpluses at home,Jan Knoerich(2012)argues Chinese FDI is driven by a unique set of needs,namely to get resources that they do not have at home and as such internationalisation is not an expression of having dominated home markets the firms takes its strengths into the internat
45、ional markets.Knoerich suggests that a significant home advantage for Chinese firms is the abundance of cheap labour at home.Internationalisation can bring back production to China-reverse diffusion and vanguard role of subsidiaries:(Edwards,1998;Ferner(Zhang&Edwards,2007)But Chinese MNCs home-count
46、ry advantage being trained,disciplined and inexpensive labour can also mean they design their employment and recruitment systems not to escape but to continue to use or access this labour.,24,Some generic features of HR&work organisation practices of Chinese MNCs,Observation that Chinese firms when
47、acquiring or investing seek efficiencies through changing the composition of the labour force:bringing in younger cheaper workers;students Use of home based nationals extends a long way down the organisation especially in resource-based FDI MNC acts as conduit for labour flow from China to overseas
48、investment site and continuation of home based management-labour system.,25,Generic features cont.,Despotic labour regimes are said to characterise employment relations in Chinese firms Bonded management-Lee(2009)in work on Chinese firms in ZambiaHeavy use of employment agencies for dispatched worke
49、rs;contract segregation within the firm agency and non-agency staffLabour relations in Chinese overseas subsidiaries.Shen and Edwards(2006)case studies of overseas Chinese companies in different sectors conclude that they shared:An autocratic management style;Low employee involvement;Lack of opennes
50、s in communications;Absence of formal policies toward employee relations;Preference for no trade union recognition in Chinese overseas operations,26,Generic features cont.,Labour is not retained within the boundaries of the firm,and while labour supply may be channelled through firm-level networks,e
