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1、,Part Three The SentenceI.Complete Sentence and Sentence Fragments A grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least a subject and a predicate verb;if the verb is transitive,there must be an object;if the verb is a link-verb,there must be a predicative or complement:He came.She wrote a
2、 letter.Dr.Smith is a professor.,Attributes and adverbials,though they are not essential elements of a sentence,help to make the meaning clear or complete:He came to the classroom very early.She wrote a long letter to her parents.Dr.Smith is a well-known professor of physics.,Attention:A complete se
3、ntence begins with a capital letter and end with a period.This simple rule is important to remember for in Chinese writing commas may be used to separate complete sentences.It was raining hard,they could not work in the fields.It was raining hard;they could not work in the fields.It was raining hard
4、.They could not work in the fields.It was raining so hard that they could not work in the fields.It was raining hard,so they could not work in the fields.,II.Types of Sentences(1)According to their use,sentences are classified as:1.Declarative Sentence(陈述句):makes an assertion or statement.2.Interrog
5、ative Sentence(疑问句):asks a question.3.Imperative Sentence(祈使句):expresses a command or a request.4.Exclamatory Sentence(感叹句):expresses a strong feeling or emotion,such as surprise,pain,or joy.,II.Types of Sentences(2)According to their structure,sentences are classified as:1.Simple Sentence 2.Compoun
6、d Sentence 3.Complex Sentence 4.Compound-Complex Sentence,Examples of simple sentence:The mother is dressing her baby.Her speech and performance moved the audience.He is reading and writing at the same time.Manny,Luwella,and Mary lubricated my car,replaced the oil filter,and cleaned the spark plugs.
7、,Examples of compound sentence:Frank wanted to go swimming,but Mary decided to go shopping.Jane works at the Family Planning Clinic and her husband Smith does research work for the same unit.,Examples of complex sentence(1):Because I forgot the time,I missed the play.While Susan was eating the fish,
8、she began to feel sick.I checked my paper again before I handed it to my professor.,Examples of complex sentence(2):The heavy rain started suddenly,so we stopped planting our trees.Mary had to give up sewing,for her arthritis had become very painful.,Examples of compound-complex sentence:When the po
9、wer line snapped(突然中断),Jack was listening to the stereo,and Linda was reading in bed.After I returned to school following a long illness,the math teacher gave me make-up work,but the history teacher made me drip her course.,III.Types of Sentences(3)From a rhetorical(修辞)point of view,sentences are cl
10、assified as：,A.The Periodic Sentence(圆周句）Definition:A periodic sentence is one in which the main thought is not completed until the very end of the sentence.Feature:more effective creates a sense of anticipation more emphatic,B.Loose Sentence（松散句）,Definition:A loose sentence puts the main idea befor
11、e all supplementary information.Features:put first things first let the reader know what it is mainly about when he has read the first few words,The difference between the loose and periodic constructions:,Loose Construction 1.The history of English words is the history of our civilization in many w
12、ays.2.She was offered a professional contract after winning the Olympic gold medal for figure skating,according to newspaper reports.3.There have been many great discoveries made by scientists in the twentieth century.,Periodic Construction1.In many ways,the history of English words is the history o
13、f our civilization.2.According to newspaper reports,after winning the Olympic gold medal for figure skating,she was offered a professional contract.3.Scientists in the twentieth century have made many great discoveries.,Practice,Rewrite the following sentences so that the final emphasis falls on the
14、 idea in the clause presented at the beginning of each sentence.1.The course was not very difficult,although I didnt receive a high grade.2.He felt that the world had come to an end when he wasnt chosen for the football team.3.It requires steady nerves to do the job safely.4.The plane began to shake
15、 noticeably as soon as it lifted off the runway.5.She filled a bucket with water to put out the fire.,Practice,6.Jane walked out of his life,bursting into tears as she left the room.7.Emily Dickinson is one of my favorite poets.8.There are many exercises to do if you want to build a muscular body.9.
16、Summer is the most enjoyable season for many people.10.He played the violin well because he had been trained in it from an early age.,C.Balanced Sentence（对偶句）,Definition:A balanced sentence contains two parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning.Features:impressive pleasing to h
17、ear used in formal writing Examples:see P50,ExercisesI.Read the following and say what kind of sentence each is(loose,periodic,or balanced):1.It is a pleasure to read good books.2.She missed the step and sprained(扭伤)her ankle.3.Badly frightened by the explosion,the boy rushed out of the laboratory.4
18、.The Jacksons must have gone away for the summer holidays,for we have not seen them for two or three weeks.5.There were the translators in their booths,and the girl secretaries at the doors,and the reporters grumbling(咕哝)and scribbling(匆忙地写)in their seats.(to be continued),(Continued)6.Our friends,w
19、ho had started before us,promised that they would meet us,but when we arrived at the bus stop,they were nowhere to be seen.7.The new thing that happened to me in the town was that I was thrown into experiences that finally seemed to cut my ties to the walled-world of my childhood.8.In the speeches o
20、f politicians towards the close of 1919 and the spring of 1920,there was manifest an increasing recognition of the fact that what is called the capitalist system the private ownership system that is,in which private profit is the working incentive-was on trial.9.It will not be done by the Government
21、;it cannot be done by Parliament.,II.Types of Sentences(2)According to their length,there are 1.Short Sentences 2.Long Sentences,1.Using short sentences Short sentences can often be very powerful,brief.They are easy to read.They are clear and effective.eg.:Love conquers all.War is hell.,But too many
22、 short sentences exhaust the reader.They sound childish:,Peter and Carl walk to school.Bonnie follows them.Bonnie is Peters dog.She is a nice dog.She walks at Peters heels.She turns back at the butchers shop.Now bonnie will try to find her friends.She may go home.(8 sentences),But too many short sen
23、tences exhaust the reader.They sound childish:,Peter and Carl walk to school,and Bonnie follows them.Bonnie is Peters dog,and She is a nice dog.She walks at Peters heels,but she turns back at the butchers shop.Now Bonnie may try to find her friends,or she may go home.(4 Sentences),But too many short
24、 sentences exhaust the reader.They sound childish:,As Peter and Carl walk to school,Peters nice dog,Bonnie,follows them,walking at Peters heels until she turns back when they reach the butchers shop.Now,if she doesnt find her friends,she will go home.(2 sentences),2.Using long sentences Long Sentenc
25、es are common in legal,political and theoretical writing,which depends on modification for accuracy.Examples:see P52 In fiction long sentences are sometimes used to describe a person,a thing or a scene.Examples:see P53,Some of the most useful subordinating conjunctions are the following:,after as lo
26、ng as if in so far assince because in case in order that as before once in as much as as if every time till provided(that)so(that)now that until whilethough although unless when,The following are some examples of in so far as,in as much as,provided(that):in so far as(只要，在范围内)1)Ill help you with your
27、 English in so far as I can.2)We will succeed only in so far as we are prepared to sacrifice secondary objectives.3)In so far as you are a student,you are allowed to travel cheaply on our railways.,The following are some examples of in so far as,in as much as,provided(that):in as much as(只要)1)In as
28、much as the road is slippery,I shall not drive to work.2)Her duty is to assist the weak in as much as she is able.,The following are some examples of in so far as,in as much as,provided(that):provided(that)(只要)1)We shall go outing provided the weather is fine.2)Provided no objection is raised,we sha
29、ll hold the meeting in the boat.,Most sentences with subordinating conjunctions can be turned around.Dont forget to put a comma when a two-part sentence starts with a subordinating conjunction.A comma usually separates the two sections of the sentence:No Comma:He is well contented although he is poo
30、r.Comma:Although he is poor,he is well contented.,Most sentences with subordinating conjunctions can be turned around.Dont forget to put a comma when a two-part sentence starts with a subordinating conjunction.A comma usually separates the two sections of the sentence:No Comma:You can use these tool
31、s till the farmers come back.Comma:Till the farmers come back,you can use these tools.,Now look at the following two ways of combining sentences:,Two sentences:Tom heard a knock at the door.Tom went to open it.One sentence:Hearing a knock at the door,tom went to open it.,Now look at the following tw
32、o ways of combining sentences:,Two sentences:Bert is a certified accountant.Even Bert was stumped(难住)by the fourth math problemOne sentence:Even Bert,a certified accountant,was stumped by the fourth math problem.,Various sentence structures have been discussed.The basic principle is that the structu
33、re should fit the idea being expressed.In other words,the idea determines the choice of the structure,not the other way around.Now do the following exercises.,III.Effective Sentences,1.Unity(一致性，统一性)2.Coherence(连贯性)3.Conciseness(简洁性)4.Emphasis(强调性)5.Variety(多样性),III.Effective Sentences 1.Unity(一致性，统
34、一性):A unified sentence expresses a single complete thought.It does not contain ideas that are not closely related,nor does it express a thought that is not complete by itself.,Example 1:F:Born in a small town in South China in the early 50s,he grew up to be a famous musician.R:He was born in a small
35、 town in South China in the early 50s.In his childhood he liked to sing songs.Later he entered a conservatoire(音乐学院).In the 70s he became a famous musician.,Example 2:F:Du Fu was one of the greatest poets.R:Du Fu was one of the greatest poets of the Tang period.,2.Coherence(连贯性):A sentence is cohere
36、nt when its words or parts are properly connected and their relationships unmistakably clear.It is not coherent if it has faulty parallel constructions,pronouns with ambiguous reference,dangling or misplaced modifiers,confusing shifts in person and number,or in voice,tense,and mood.,Example 1:F:A ma
37、n is judged not only by what he says but also by his deeds.R:A man is judged not only by what he says but also by what he does.A man is judged not only by his words but also by his deeds.,Example 2:F:We thought she was charming,intelligent,and a very capable young woman.R:We thought she was charming
38、,intelligent,and very capable.We thought she was a charming,intelligent,and very capable young woman.,Example 3:F:We have great faith and high hopes for her.R:We have great faith in and high hopes for her.,Look at the following examples:F:She told my sister that she was wrong.R:“Im wrong,”she said t
39、o my sister.She admitted that she was wrong and said so to my sister.“Youre wrong,”she said to my sister.My sister was told that she was wrong.,Look at the following examples:F:He was knocked down by a bicycle,but it was not serious.R:He was knocked down by a bicycle,but was not badly hurt.In each o
40、f the faulty sentences there is a pronoun with ambiguous reference.,Look at the following sentences:F:Looking out of the window,the grassland stretches as far as the eye can reach.R:Looking out of the window,he(she,I)can see the grassland stretching as far as the eye can reach.Outside the window,the
41、 grassland stretches as far as the eye can reach.,Look at the following sentences:F:On entering the classroom,the students stood up and said,“Good morning!”R:When the teacher entered the classroom,the students stood up and said,“Good morning!”On entering the classroom,the teacher was greeted by the
42、students,who stood up and said,“Good morning!”,Look at the following sentences:F:To get ready for the trip,all the things she needed were put into a suitcase.R:To get ready for the trip,she put all the things she needed into a suitcase.,Here are more incoherent sentences:F1:I read an interesting sto
43、ry in a magazine about sportsmen.R1:I read in a magazine an interesting story about sportsmen.F2:The idea he mentioned at first sounded good.R2:The idea he first mentioned sounded good.The idea he mentioned sounded good at first.,Here are more incoherent sentences:F:He gave a reason for not attendin
44、g the meeting,which nobody believed.R:He gave a reason,which nobody believed,for not attending the meeting.,Here are more incoherent sentences:F:An important thing for the student to remember is that when writing a paper,you should not plagiarize.R:An important thing for the student to remember is t
45、hat when writing a paper,he should not plagiarize.,3.Conciseness(简洁性):A sentence should contain no unnecessary words.If the idea is fully expressed,the fewer words are used,the better.Wordiness only obscures,instead of clarifying,the idea.,Compare the following:W:It was blue in color.It was small in
46、 size.Mary is a quiet and careful woman.He returned in the early part of the month of August.C:It was blue.It was small.Mary is quiet and careful.He returned in early August.,Repetition is sometimes necessary for emphasis,but unnecessary repetition,either of the same words or of different words with
47、 the same meaning,should be avoided.Examples:W:In my opinion,I think your plan is feasible.C:I think your plan is feasible.,More Examples:W:He gave many reasons for the failure,but the reasons he gave were not convincing.C:He gave many reasons for the failure,but none of them was convincing.,More Ex
48、amples:W:This machine was jointly designed by the old engineer in collaboration with some of his younger colleagues.C:This machine was jointly designed by the old engineer and some of his younger colleagues.This machine was designed by the old engineer in collaboration with some of his younger colle
49、agues.,Conciseness can sometimes be achieved by changing the sentence structure.Compare:W:There was a pine tree that stood like a giant on the top of the mountain.It towered over the trees around it.,Compare:C:The pine tree on the top of the mountain stood like a giant and towered over the trees aro
50、und it.The giant pine tree on the top of the mountain towered over the trees around it.On the top of the mountain was a giant pine tree which towered over the trees around it.,Compare:W:Mr.Smith usually likes to drink all kinds of wines that are produced in France.C:Mr.Smith prefers wines produced i
