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1、土木工程专业外文翻译-高层结构与钢结构 外文原文Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildingsThe early development of high-rise buildings beg
2、an with structural steel framingReinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposesThe high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United
3、 States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systemsGreater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limitExcessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitio
4、nsceilingsand other architectural details In additionexcessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motionStructural systems of reinforced concreteas well as steeltake full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and ther
5、efore require additional stiffening to limit the swayIn a steel structurefor examplethe economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the buildingCurve A in Fig 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numb
6、ers of stories Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frameStructural engineers have developed structural systems with
7、 a view to eliminating this premiumSystems in steel Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildingsFrame with rigid belt trusses In order to tie the exterior columns
8、of a frame structure to the interior vertical trussesa system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building 1974 in MilwaukeeFramed tube The imum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building f
9、or both strength and stiffnessto resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground This particular structural system was probably used for the first time
10、 in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reason
11、ably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago using as much steel as is normally n
12、eeded for a traditional 40-story buildingBundled tube With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Bu
13、ilding in Chicago has nine tube bundled at the base of the building in three rows Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept The Sears tower at a height of 1450 ft 442m is the
14、 worlds tallest buildingStressed-skin tube system The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces wind and earthquake and the control of drift lateral building movement in high-rise building The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further The devel
15、opment of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the faade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross f
16、loor areaBecause of the contribution of the stressed-skin faade the framed members of the tube require less mass and are thus lighter and less expensive All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapesminimizing the use and cost of special built-up members The depth requirement
17、for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced and the need for upset beams above floors which would encroach on valuable space is minimized The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in PittburghSystems in concrete While tall buildings constructed of steel had an e
18、arly start development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildingsFramed tube As discussed above the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-
19、story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building In this building exterior columns were spaced at 55ft 168m centers and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in -thick 20-m flat-plate concrete slabsTube in tube Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the tradition
20、al shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area The system Fig 2 known as the tube-in-tube system made it possible to design the worlds present
21、tallest 714ft or 218m lightweight concrete building the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 storiesSystems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed an examle of which is the composite system developed by s
22、kidmore Owings Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this systemSteel constructi
23、on refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works with the steel generally in the form of beams girders bars plates and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process Despite t
24、he increased use of other materials steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the US UK USSR Japan West German France and other steel producers in the 1970sEarly history The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the
25、 Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin openj-hearth processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge built in cast iron over the
26、Severn River in England in 1777 This and subsequent iron bridge work in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls spurred the development of techniques for fabricating designing and jioning The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material requir
27、ed The truss form based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation long used in timber was translated effectively into iron with cast iron being used for compression members-ie those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-ie those bearing the pull
28、of suspended loadingThe technique for passing iron heated to the plastic state between rolls to form flat and rounded bars was developed as early as 1800by 1819 angle irons were rolled and in 1849 the first I beams 177 feet 54m long were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad stationTwo yea
29、rs later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851 He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large open structure Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was
30、provided by diagonal iron rods Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction first the use of latticed girder which are small trusses a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton and second the joining of wrought-iron
31、 tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hotIn 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams cl
32、osely resembled railroad railsThe development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose Stronger than iron in both tension and compression the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers notab
33、ly by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain Europe and the USA notable example was the Eads Bridge also known as the St Louis Bridge in St Louis 1867-1874 in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft 152
34、5m In Britain the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge 1883-90 employed tubular struts some 12 ft 366m in diameter and 350 ft 107m long Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses The lack of
35、adequate theoretical knowledge and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th centuryas iccasionally failuressuch as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907revealedBut failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office
36、 buildingsthe simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques Throughout the first third of the century ordinary carbon steel without any special alloy strengthening or hardening was universally usedThe possibilities inherent in metal const
37、ruction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel a leading French bridge engineer erected an openwork metal tower 300m 984 ft high Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable but the speed
38、 of erection and low cost were even more so a small crew completed the work in a few months The first skyscrapers Meantime in the United States another important development was taking place In 1884-85 Maj William Le Baron Jenney a Chicago engineer had designed the Home Insurance Building ten storie
39、s high with a metal skeleton Jenneys beams were of Bessemer steel though his columns were cast iron Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were in turn supported on the cast iron columns Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading Within a dec
40、ade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York Steel played a larger and larger role in these with riveted connections for beams and columns sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and h
41、orizontal members Light masonry curtain walls supported at each floor level replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls supported at each floor level replaced the old heavy masonryThough the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade its impact on the
42、steel industry was worldwide By the last years of the 19th century the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in 0508m in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size an
43、d strength In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds 45 kilograms per foot decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds 320 kilograms per footCoincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introductio
44、n of the Otis electric elevator in 1889 The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method sent building heights soaring In New York the 286-ft 872-m Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft 115-m Times Building r
45、enamed the Allied Chemical Building the 468-ft 143-m City Investing Company Building in Wall Street the 612-ft 187-m Singer Building 1908 the 700-ft 214-m Metropolitan Tower 1909 and in 1913 the 780-ft 232-m Woolworth BuildingThe rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problem
46、s To limit street congestion building setback design was prescribed On the technical side the problem of lateral support was studied A diagonal bracing system such as that used in the Eiffel Tower was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination The answer was found
47、in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns With todays modern interior lighting systems however diagonal bracing against wi
48、nd loads has returned one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structures faadeWorld War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers the origin of the word is uncertain but in the 1920s New Y
49、ork saw a resumption of the height race culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931 The Empire States 102 stories 1250ft 381m were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered A depot across the bay at Bayonne NJ supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with milli
