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1、梁晓帆教育部实验室安全卫生研习,人因工程学 I,人因工程定义,人因工程是了解人的能力与限制，而应用于工具、机器、系统、工作方法和环境之设计，使人能在安全舒适及合乎人性的状况下，发挥最大工作效率和使用效能，并提高生产力及使用者的满意度。资料来源：中华民国人因工程学会(Ergonomics Society of Taiwan)http:/www.est.org.tw/index.htm,背景介绍：人因工程背景介绍,二次大战前：1900年代初期，Gilbreth夫妇致力于动作研究和工场管理方面之研究。成果包括技术性工作的绩效与疲劳之研究，和设计残障者适用的工作站与装备。圖片來源：http:/,背景介
2、绍,二次大战后：1945年，美国军方成立工程心理学实验室。1949年，Ergonomics Society在英國成立。http:/www.ergonomics.org.uk/1957年，Human Factors and Ergonomics Society在美國成立。http:/hfes.org/1959年，International Ergonomics Association成立。http:/www.iea.cc/1993年，中華民國人因工程學會(Ergonomics Society of Taiwan)成立。http:/www.est.org.tw/index.htm,个人意外发生程序
3、模型,暴露于危害状态,危害的感知,危害的认知,决定避免,避免的能力,安全的行为,不安全的行为,机会,机会,意外,没有意外,否,否,否,否,是,是,是,是,感应能力、感知能力、警醒状况等,经验、训练、心智能力、记忆能力等,经验、训练、态度、动机、冒险程度、个性等,人体计测、生物力学、运动能力等,(Ramsey,1985),危害的感知,人类接收外界讯息的管道:,危害的感知,视觉系统概述,视觉系统概述,刺激原：光线能夠刺激眼睛的視網膜而產生視覺的輻射能可見光譜380 780 nanometer光线的强度光源光强度(Luminous Intensity)，单位：烛光(Candela,cd)光通量(Lu
4、minous Flux)，单位：流明(Lumen,lm)放射至物体表面照度(Illumination)，单位：呎烛光(Footcandle,fc lm/ft2)照度(Illuminance)，单位：勒克斯(Lux,lx lm/m2)反射亮度(Luminance)，单位：呎朗伯(Footlambert,fL lm/ft2)；cd/m2反射比(Reflectance),视觉系统概述,CIE 色彩图根据三原色(RGB)绘制人类所能感受的所有颜色Munsell 色锥以色调、饱和度与明度来描述颜色,视觉系统概述,接收系统：眼睛与视觉神经物体反射的光线?角膜(Cornea)?水样液(Aqueous Hum
5、or)?瞳孔(Pupil)?水晶体(Lens)折射?玻璃液(Vitreous Humor)?网膜(Retina)网膜(Retina)锥状细胞(Cone)分布：集中在中央小窝(Fovea)附近特性：视锐度高、能辨色彩，但需在光线充足的情况下作用杆状细胞(Rod)分布：网膜的四周特性：视锐度低、只能辨别黑白，但可在光线不足的情况下作用,视觉系统概述,物体大小视角物体细节视锐度(Visual Acuity)眼睛能够分辨物体细节的能力=1/视角衡量方法：最小可判离敏锐度(Minimum Separable Acuity)物体对比对比敏感度(Contrast Sensitivity)景深感知经验法则,L
6、ight:Wavelength,Light:Intensity,Brightness:Subjective experience of visual intensity,CIE color space,Based on human color perception RGB(red,green,blue)All colors that can be humanly perceived can be plotted within this space.The area within the triangle represents the colors that can be displayed b
7、y a typical television monitor.The+indicates the white point of the monitor.x=X/(X+Y+Z)y=Y/(X+Y+Z),Munsells color dimensions,Eye:The Retina,Eye:Rods and Cones,Eye:Rods and Cones,Object size:Visual angle,For visual angles is less than 10 degrees:VA:Visual AngleH:Height of the objectD:Distance(1 minut
8、e of arc:1/60 of 1 degree),Object detail:Visual acuity,Visual acuity=MeasurementsMinimum separable acuityGeneral measurement of smallest detail detectableVernier acuityAre lines aligned?Landolt ringIs the gap in a ring detectable?Snellen acuityMeasurement of detail revolved at 20 ft.(6 m.)20/20,Cont
9、rast sensitivity,Modulation contrast(C)Lmax:The maximum luminanceLmin:The minimum luminanceThreshold contrast(CM)The minimum amount of contrast that can just be detectedContrast Sensitivity(CS)The reciprocal of the threshold contrast,Influences on Contrast Sensitivity,Spatial frequency(cycles/degree
10、)Most sensitive around 2-4 cycles/degreeContrastBlack print on grayThe level of illumination of the stimulusReading map in poor lightEye itselfAgeDynamic environmentMotion,Depth perception:Top-down processing,Linear perspectiveConverging of parallel lines(the road)Relative sizeTwo trucksInterpositio
11、nTwo buildingsLight and shadingLocation&3-DTextural gradientsThe cone fieldRelative motionDistant object?Smaller movement,危害的感知,听觉系统与其它感觉系统概述,听觉系统与其它感觉系统概述,刺激原：声音能够刺激耳朵而产生听觉的振动波频率每秒钟压力变化的周期次数，单位：赫(Hertz,Hz)强度声压水平(Sound Pressure Level,SPL)SPL(dB)=20 log(P1/P2)P1 and P2:Pressures复合音位置,听觉系统与其它感觉系统概述,接收
12、系统：耳朵外耳、中耳以及内耳响度(Loudness)?强度0 db=A pure tone of 1,000 Hz at 20 micro Newtons/m2音调(Pitch)?频率20 20000 Hz音色(Timbre)?复合音感知位置?位置,Ear,Loudness and pitch,Psychophysical scalingLoudness(Sone)1 sone=the loudness of a 40 db tone of 1000 HzLoudness approximately doubles with each 10 db increase in sound inten
13、sity,Loudness and pitch(Cont.),Frequency influenceRange:20 to 20000 HzMost sensitive to sounds of around 4000 HzEqual loudness contours(phon)1 phon=1 db of loudness of a 1000 Hz tone40 phons=1 sone50 phons=2 sones60 phones=4 sones30 phones=0.5 sones,Masking,Principles for designThe minimum intensity
14、 difference necessary to ensure that a sound can be heard is around 15 db above the mask.Sounds tend to be masked most by sounds in a critical frequency band surrounding the sound that is masked.Low-pitch sounds mask high-pitch sounds more than the converse.,听觉系统与其它感觉系统概述,触觉/肤觉键盘、手套、盲人点字、虚拟实境等肢体位置的感
15、觉(Proprioception)与肢体移动的感觉(Kinesthesis)游戏杆、鼠标、方向盘等前庭(平衡)感觉(Vestibular sense)空间迷向(Spatial disorientation)动晕症(Motion sickness),感知的一般原理,由上而下(Top-down)与由下而上(Bottom-up)程序Top-downWhat should be there经验、知识、预期心理Bottom-upWhat is there感应讯号侦检理论(Signal Detection Theory,SDT)敏感度Bottom-up操作者行为Top-down,感知的一般原理,辨别(Di
16、scrimination)相似程度绝对判断(Absolute Judgment)Vs.相对判断(Relative Judgment),Bottom-up vs.Top-down Processing,Experience,StimulusWorld,Knowledge(expectanciesand desires),The senses,Perception,Bottom-upProcessing,Top-downProcessing,What is there,What should be there,Detection,Signal Detection Theory(SDT)Discri
17、minate signals from noise,Discrimination,Judgment of differences between two sources of information that are present,Absolute judgment,Judgment of the absolute value of a variable signaled by a coded stimulus,危害的认知与避免的决定,人类之认知与决策概述,危害的认知与避免的决定,信息程序模型(Information Processing Model)接收信息、处理信息与响应信息工作记忆(W
18、orking Memory)容量(Capacity)：7?2 chunks时间(Time)：半衰期(Half life)3 chunks:7 seconds1 chunk:70 seconds注意力(Attention)相似度(Similarity)b and d,危害的认知与避免的决定,信息程序模型(Information Processing Model)长期记忆(Long-term Memory)对象记忆强度频率(Frequency)与新近度(Recency)对象记忆联结(Association)对象之间相互的联结遗忘：指数曲线低频率(Frequency)与新近度(Recency)低联结
19、(Association)干扰的联结(Interfering Associations)信息的组织(Organization of Information)语意网络(Semantic Networks)基模(Schemas)心智模式(Mental Model),危害的认知与避免的决定,决策模型(Decision Making Model)线索之接收与整合(Cue reception and integration)Attention to limited number of cuesCue primacyInattention to later cuesCue salienceOverweig
20、hting of unreliable cues假设之产生(Hypothesis generation)A limited number of hypotheses are generatedAvailability heuristicRepresentativeness heuristicOverconfidence,危害的认知与避免的决定,决策模型(Decision Making Model)假设之评估与选择(Hypothesis evaluation and selection)Cognitive fixationConfirmational bias行动之产生与选择(Generatin
21、g and selecting actions)Retrieve a small number of actionsAvailability heuristic for actionAvailability of possible outcomes,危害的认知与避免的决定,决策模型(Decision Making Model)风险评估低估 vs.高估Known-UnknownUnderstood-Not understoodCommon-UncommonMundane-DramaticLittle media coverage-Much media coverageNoncontroverti
22、al-ControvertialMe in control-You in controlVoluntary-NonvoluntaryFun risks-Work risksFew injuries/events-Many injuries/eventsSensory perception-Unable to senseBenign experience-Hurtful experience(Buys,1982),Information processing model,Model Human Processor(Card,Moran and Newell,1983),ProcessorsPer
23、ceptual Processor(Cycle time:10050200 msec.)Cognitive Processor(Cycle time:7025170 msec.)Motor Processor(Cycle time:7030100 msec.)Simple reaction:Cycle time:240105470 msec.MemoriesVisual Image Store(Decay time:200701000 msec.;Capacity:17717 letters)Auditory Image Store(Decay time:15009003500 msec.;C
24、apacity:54.46.2 letters)Working Memory(Decay time:without attention:75226 msec.,1 chunk:7373226 msec.,3 chunks:7534 msec.;Capacity:32.54.1 chunks,759 chunks)Long-Term Memory(Decay time:?;Capacity:?)Chunking:于认知过程中,个人组织讯息成有意义之单位(Miller,1956):7?2(59)chunksExample:TRE ECA TDOG vs.TREE CAT DOG,Long-term
25、 memory:Semantic networks,Long-term memory:Schemas,Decision making model,Information-processing frameworkCue reception and integrationHypothesis generationHypothesis evaluation and selectionGenerating and selecting actions,避免的能力,人体计测与生物力学概述,避免的能力,人体的差异年龄、性别、种族、职业、世代、暂时的每日变化等人体计测数据库军方与民间台湾地区劳工人体计测数据库
26、本数据库所量测到的人体计测数据包含为动态尺寸42项以及静态尺寸266项两大类，将所有的尺寸汇总后共有308项。目前样本数1200笔，样本背景以劳工为主。静态数据库量测人体静止时之维度(如身高、肩宽等)动态数据库量测人体工作时之维度(如站立时右手可及之区域等)工作站设计,Anthropometric data,Measurement devices and methodsMartins anthropometric instrumentsMorant technique(grid system)Photographic methodsDigital human modeling,General
27、principles for work-space design(Cont.),Visibility and normal line of sightNormal line of sightThe preferred direction of gaze when the eyes are at a resting conditionAbout 10?to 15?below the horizontal planeVisual display should be placed within?15?in radius around the normal line of sight,General
28、principles for work-space design(Cont.),Component arrangementFrequency of use principleImportance principleSequence of use principleConsistency principleControl-display compatibility principle of co-locationClutter-avoidance principleFunctional-grouping principle,Design of standing and seated work a
29、reas,Choice between standing and seated work areasAnalysis of job componentsWork surface heightGeneral rules of thumbStanding working heights at 5 to 10 cm below elbow levelSeated working heights at elbow levelWork surface depthNormal work areaThe horizontal area covered by a sweep of the forearm wi
30、thout extending the upper armMaximum work areaThe horizontal area covered by a sweep of the arm by extending the arm from the shoulderWork surface inclinationSlightly slanted surfaces(about 15?)should be used for reading,避免的能力,骨骼肌肉系统连结组织关节生物力学模型牛顿力学三定律下背抬举模型NIOSH抬举准则座椅设计,The musculoskeletal system,F
31、unctionsTo support and protect the body and body partsTo maintain posture and produce body movementTo generate heat and maintain body temperatureBones206 bonesProtect internal organs(e.g.,skull and the rib cage)Support body movement(e.g.,long bones of the upper and lower extremities),The musculoskel
32、etal system(Cont.),Connective tissuesTendons(肌腱)Transmit the forces exerted by the muscles to the attached bonesLigaments(韧带)Connect the articular extremities of bones and help stabilize the articulations of bones at jointsCartilage(软骨)A translucent elastic tissueFascia(筋膜)Covers body structures and
33、 separates them from each other,The musculoskeletal system(Cont.),JointsSynovial joints(滑液关节)No tissue exists between the highly lubricated joint surfacesFibrous joints(纤维关节)Such as those connecting the bones of the skull through fibrous tissuesCartilaginous joints(软骨关节)Such as those bridging verteb
34、ral bones and intervertebral discs,The musculoskeletal system(Cont.),Types of movement allowedNo-mobility jointsDo not support movement(e.g.,the seams in the skull of an adult)Hinge jointsPermit motion in only one plane(e.g.,elbow)Pivot jointsAllow 2 degrees of freedom in movement(e.g.,wrist)Ball-an
35、d-socket jointsAllow 3 degrees of freedom in movement(e.g.,the hip and shoulder),Biomechanical models,3 Newtons lawsSingle-segment planar(2-D)static modelW=mgW:Weight of object(N)m:the mass of object(kg)g:the gravitational acceleration(9.8 m/s2)Won-each-hand=(20 kg?9.8 m/s2)/2=98 N?(forces at the el
36、bow)=0-16N-98N+Relbow=0;Relbow=114N?(moments at the elbow)=0-16N(0.18m)-98N(0.36m)+Melbow=0;Melbow=38,16 N-m,Low-back problems,Low-back biomechanics of lifting?(moments at the L5/S1 disc)=0Fback-muscle?5cm=Wload?h+Wtorso?b?(forces at the L5/S1 disc)=0Fcompression=(Wload+Wtorso)?Cos?+Fback-muscle,NIO
37、SH lifting guide,BiomechanicsCriterion for the compressive force at the L5/S1 disc=3.4kNPhysiologyThe limit of maximum energy expenditure for a lifting=2.2 to 4.7 kcal/minPsychophysicsThe maximum-acceptable-weight-of-lift=the acceptable lifting capacity of about 99%of male workers and 75%of female w
38、orkers(about 90%of a 50-50 mixed-sex working population),NIOSH lifting guide(Cont.),RWL=LC?HM?VM?DM?AM?FM?CMRWL=Recommended weight limitLC=load constant(23kg)HM=horizontal multiplier(25/H)H?25cm,HM=1;H 63cm,HM=0VM=vertical multiplier(1-0.003|V-75|)V 175cm,VM=0;75cm=Knuckle height for average person(
39、165 cm)DM=distance multiplier(0.82+4.5/D)D?25cm,DM=1;D 175cm,DM=0AM=asymmetric multiplier(1-0.0032A)A 135?,AM=0FM=frequency multiplier(Table 11.2)CM=coupling multiplier(Table 11.3)LI(Lifting Index)=Load Weight/RWLLI 1:likely to pose an increased risk for some workersLI 3:many or most workers are at
40、high risk of developing low-back pain and injuryhttp:/www.cdc.gov/niosh/94-110.html,NIOSH lifting guide(Cont.),An exampleH=16”V=44”D=18”A=80?F=3 lifts/minC:Good couplingJob duration:8 hrs/dayWeight lifted=15 lbsRWL=51?0.625?0.895?0.92?0.744?0.55?1.0=10.74(lbs)LI=15/10.74=1.40,NIOSH lifting guide(Con
41、t.),Manual material handling1991 NIOSH lifting equationJob analysis toolSeven major parameters in designing workplaces and devices for material handlingMaterial handling devices(MHDs),Material handling devices(Cont.),NIOSH lifting guide(Cont.),Seated work and chair designLordosis(前弯)vs.kyphosis(后弯)C
42、hair designBackrest:110?-120?Lumbar supportArm restsTiltable and cushioned seat surfaceAdjusted seat heightOthersAdequate leg spaceRegular breaks,Upper-extremity cumulative trauma disorders,TermsCumulative trauma disorders(CTDs,累积性伤害)Repetitive Strain Injuries(RSIs)Common forms of CTDTendon-related
43、CTDTendonitis(肌腱炎)Tenosynovitis(腱鞘炎)Neuritis(神经炎)Nerve damageIschemia(缺血)Tissue anemiaBursitis(滑液囊炎)Inflammation of a bursa,Upper-extremity CTDs(Cont.),FingersHand and wristElbowShoulder,梁晓帆教育部实验室安全卫生研习,人因工程学 II,个人意外发生程序模型,暴露于危害状态,危害的感知,危害的认知,决定避免,避免的能力,安全的行为,不安全的行为,机会,机会,意外,没有意外,否,否,否,否,是,是,是,是,感应能
44、力、感知能力、警醒状况等,经验、训练、心智能力、记忆能力等,经验、训练、态度、动机、冒险程度、个性等,人体计测、生物力学、运动能力等,(Ramsey,1985),定义,危害(Hazard)有可能造成灾害(受伤或死亡)的状态风险(Risk)造成灾害(受伤或死亡)的机率或可能性危险(Danger)危害?风险,91年全产业职业灾害统计：灾害类型,资料来源：劳工安全卫生研究所(http:/www.iosh.gov.tw/index.html),91年全产业职业灾害统计：受伤部位,资料来源：劳工安全卫生研究所(http:/www.iosh.gov.tw/index.html),相关单位,劳工安全卫生研究
45、所民国81年8月劳工安全卫生研究所成立。劳工安全卫生研究所为隶属行政院劳工委员会之研究机构，其主要任务为运用科学技术，调查、分析工作环境中的各种危害因子，并进而提出改善对策。中华民国人因工程学会缘起：人因工程在国内有系统的发展，大约是从民国七十三年，国科会邀请国内人因工程小组，讨论它的发展方向开始的，经过好几次会议的热烈讨论，才确定了人因工程的中文名称和它的发展方向（之前的中文译名不一，如人体工学、人类工程学、人类因素学等），从那时起，人因工程就是国科会工程处在工业工程方面的一个发展重点；而中华民人因工程学会是民国八十一年七月间，由国内各大教授及研究机构相关人员提议成立，以整合国内人因工程人力
46、资源，共同合作提升国内人因工程学术研究及相关技术水准，并促进国际相关研究之交流。,相关单位,中华民国人因工程学会发展：在过去的几年期间，国内人因工程的专业人才渐渐增多，人因工程的研究推广每年都有令人满意成果与成长，原来主要由国科会支持的研究推广工作，近年来也陆续扩展到其它相关政府机构，如：劳委会、原委会、交通部、经济部等，民间产业在这方面的需求也日渐增多，国科会在工程处中正式成立了工业工程学门，人因工程也被列为五个子学门之一，可以显示出它的重要性与潜力，另外在国科会生物处的范围内，在医学工程在生物力学、残障辅助设施、复健等方面，也需要人因工程的配合支持。,安全与意外防治,危害因子(Hazard
47、 factors)危害确认方法(Hazard identification methods)危害控制方法(Hazard control methods),危害因子,任务相关项目人员年龄、能力、经验、用药与酒精、性别、压力、警醒与疲劳、动机、易错性等工作警醒与疲劳、物理工作负荷、心理工作负荷、休息周期、轮班、步调、程序等设备与工具控制与显示、电危害、机械危害、热危害、压力危害、有毒物质、爆裂危害、组件失效等,危害因子,环境物理环境照明、噪音、振动、温度、湿度、悬浮粒子、火灾危害、辐射危害、跌倒等社会/心理环境管理方法、社会常规、士气、训练、诱因,危害确认方法,危害评估矩阵(Hazard Asse
48、ssment Matrix,MIL-STD-882B)初步危害分析(Preliminary Hazards Analysis)失效模式及效应分析(Failure Modes and Effects Analysis,FMEA)失误树分析(Fault Tree Analysis),Hazard identification and control,Hazard criticality and riskMIL-STD-882B,Hazard identification and control(Cont.),Hazard identificationPreliminary hazards anal
49、ysisEvaluate the combinations of task actions,potential users,and environments to develop a list of the most obvious hazards that will be associated with a systemSpecify the cause of each hazard and the most likely effect on the systemEstimate the likelihood that an accident would occur as the resul
50、t of the hazard and the severity of the consequencesList potential corrective measures for each hazardFailure modes and effects criticality analysis(FMECA)Include hazard criticality of the effect and foreseeable misuse in FMEAComponents?subsystems?systemFault tree analysisWork down to identify all p
