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1、,What a wonderful world of possibilities have unfolded for the children Ralph Ellison,Timeline of Court Cases1954-Present1954 Brown vs.Topeka Board of Education Bolling vs.Sharpe1955 Brown vs.Topeka Board of Education II1958 Cooper vs.Aaron1963 Gideon vs.Wainwright1964 Griffen vs.Prince Edward Count
2、y1968 Green vs.New Kent County1969 Alexander vs.Homes County Board of Education1971 Swann vs.Charlotte-Mecklenburg County U.S.vs.Jefferson County Board of Education1973 Keyes vs.Denver School District No.11974 Milliken vs.Bradley1976 Pasadena vs.Spangler1977 Milliken vs.Bradley II1986 Riddick vs.Nor
3、folk City,Virginia School Board1991 Oklahoma City vs.Dowell1992 Freeman vs.Pitts1995 Missouri vs.Jenkins1999 Swann vs.Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools Capacchione vs.Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools,The history of Brown is dynamic.Assessing its impact is complex.Has Brown worked?If so,what is the evidence
4、?If it has not worked,what was the flaw?Whats a better strategy?Explore the consequences,choices,decisions and policies stemming from Brown and at the end,you are invited to make your own reflections relative to the promise of Brown fulfilled or unfilled?,Pre-Brown Environment,Plessy v.F,The Strateg
5、y,The Brown Family,Brown V.Board of Education,1954,The Issue Before the Court,Does racial segregation of children in public schools deprive minority children of equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment?Supreme Court Ruling:The Supreme Court ruled unanimously to end racial segregat
6、ion in public schools.In 1955,the ruling known as“Brown II”called for desegregation with all deliberate speed.,Source:http:/www.pbs.org/jefferson/enlight/brown.htm,Did You Know?,The case known as Brown was actually 5 cases from different parts of the country consolidated for argument before the Supr
7、eme Court.Brown was first because the names were alphabetically listed.Thurgood Marshall actually argued the case from South Carolina.Crucial to the argument was social science theory presented by Kenneth and Mamie Clark that even facilities that were physically equal did not take into account intan
8、gible factors,and that segregation itself has a deleterious effect on the education of black children,1954,Thurgood Marshall with James Nabrit Jr.and George E.C.Hayes after their victory in the Brown v.Board of Education case before the Supreme Court,May 17,1954.,Brown Family.Eldest daughter Linda w
9、alked past a white public school a fewblocks from her home,crossing dangerous railroad tracks and riding a bus for To attend her segregate school.,Mid 1950s,1954Virginias political establishment vows not to comply with the federal court ruling and declares it will maintain school segregation through
10、 a campaign that becomes known as massive resistance.Virginia will close any white public schools that admit African-American students.,1957,Little Rock Central High School was to begin the 1957 school year desegregated.On September 2,the night before the first day of school,Governor Faubus announce
11、d that he had ordered the Arkansas National Guard to monitor the school the next day.When a group of nine black students arrived at Central High on September 3,the were kept from entering by the National Guardsmen.,1957,1957,President Eisenhower sent in US troops to protect the students.,Schools in
12、Prince Edward County Virginia closed from 1959 to 1964.White officials shut down the countys public schools rather than integrate,http:/www.vahistory.org/massive.resistance/photos/1/Diggs0027.jpg,Did You Know 1950s,Selected Jim Crow laws still in existence?,1957President Dwight D.Eisenhower sends fe
13、deral troops to ensure integration of the all-white Central High School in Little Rock,Ark.,Spottswood Thomas Bolling,Jr.,twelve years old in 1951,was a Washington,D.C.student who could not attend a brand new junior high school reserved for whites near his home.The NAACP filed suit in his behalf in
14、Bolling v.Sharpe,a case that became a companion to the better known Brown v.Board of Education.,1956-Gayle v.Browder The Supreme Court declares city bus segregation laws unconstitutional,thereby ending Montgomery bus boycott.,1955-Rosa Parks,seated at the front of the colored section on a Montgomery
15、 bus,refused to give her seat to a white passenger and move farther back.Ms.Parks arrest launched the 382-day Montgomery bus boycott and,in many respects,the contemporary civil rights movement.LDF assisted local counsel in defending her.,http:/www.naacpldf.org/welcome/timeline/1966_info.html,1958-Li
16、ttle Rock Nine-In Cooper v.Aaron,LDF won a Supreme Court ruling that barred Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus from interfering with the desegregation of Little Rocks Central High School.Subsequently,the Little Rock Nine were escorted to school for several months by the National Guard,which had been fed
17、eralized by President Dwight D.Eisenhower.,http:/www.naacpldf.org/welcome/timeline/1966_info.html,1960s,Several Supreme Court Decisions ordered States to have plansto racially balance schools and to have desegregation plansthat worked.U.S.v.Jefferson County Board of Education(1966)Green v.County Sch
18、ool Board of New Kent Count(1968),Six year old Ruby Bridges being escorted to school in,Few more images related to school desegregation efforts(Maybe Hunter,Meredith,etc.)1962-Meredith v.Fair James Meredith finally succeeded in becoming the first African-American student admitted to the University o
19、f Mississippi through efforts of a legal team led by LDF attorney Constance Baker Motley.,http:/www.naacpldf.org/welcome/timeline/1966_info.html,Percentage of White Students in Schools Attended by the Average Black Student,1968-2000,1960s,Civil Rights Movement in Full SwingDesegregation in other oth
20、er areas follow1964 Civil Rights Acts-outlaws race and gender discrimination in voting,public accommodations,and employment.Title VI,which prohibits discrimination in education,becomes a major tool of desegregation efforts.,Greensboro North Carolina Sit-InStudents being refused service at luncheon c
21、ounter reserved for white customers,February 1,1960:After passing by Ralph Johns store on Market Street,Ezell Blair Jr.(Jibreel Khazan),David Richmond,Joseph McNeil,and Franklin McCain enter the Elm Street Woolworths at 4 p.m.,purchase school supplies and sundry items.They then approach the lunch co
22、unter and order coffee at 4:30 p.m.They are refused service.The four remain in their seats until closing at 5 p.m.,Under heavy GUARD,James Meredith is escorted to registration at Ole Miss by Chief U.S.Marshal James McShane(left)and John Doar of the U.S.Justice Department.Mississippi-1962,Local Lawme
23、n show what they plan to do to U.S.Marshals,sent to assure the admission of James Meredith as the first black student at the University of Mississippi(Ole Miss).Mississippi 1962,Mississippi,1962,Alabama 1963,After being hit from behind and knocked down by a water hose,a woman is picked up and RESCUE
24、D by a fellow demonstrator.,Birmingham,1963In April 1963 Martin Luther King,Jr.,helped launch a series of nonviolent demonstrations in Birmingham,Alabama.Police Commissioner Eugene Bull Connor personally supervised a brutal effort to break of the peaceful marches,arresting hundreds of demonstrators
25、and using fire hoses,tear gas,electric cattle prods,and,in this case,attack dogs,as much of the nation watched televised reports in horror.These events and images helped bring the growing movement to something of a climax.,Source:http:/www.columbia.edu/itc/history/brinkley/3651/3651_syllabus.html,In
26、 Birmingham,anti-segregation demonstrators lie on the sidewalk to protect themselves from firemen with high PRESSURE water hoses.One disgusted fireman said later,Were supposed to fight fires,not people.,Official Program For the March On Washington,Civil Rights Movement in Full Swing,Over 250,000 peo
27、ple participated.Martin Luther King was the keynote speaker.,Did You Know 1960s,Busing-1970s,In 1970 a U.S.judge in North Carolina ordered that black students be bused to white schools and that white students be bused to black schools.This crosstown school busing,it was hoped,would end the de facto
28、segregation of public schools caused by white students living in predominantly white neighborhoods and black students living in predominantly black neighborhoods.,Swann v.Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of EducationNo.281SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES402 U.S.1October 12,1970April 20,1971*CERTIORARI
29、TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUITSyllabus The Charlotte-Mecklenburg school system,which includes the city of Charlotte,North Carolina,had more than 84,000 students in 107 schools in the 1968-1969 school year.Approximately 29%(24,000)of the pupils were Negro,about 14,000 of
30、 whom attended 21 schools that were at least 99%Negro.This resulted from a desegregation plan approved by the District Court in 1965,at the commencement of this litigation.In 1968,petitioner Swann moved for further relief based on Green v.County School Board,391 U.S.430,which required school boards
31、to.-http:/www2.law.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/foliocgi.exe/historic/query=group+case+information!3Agroup+402+u!2Es!2E+1!3A/doc/48919/hit_headings/words=4?,Richmonds public schools implemented a massive busing plan 1971,1971 North Carolina case of Swann vs.Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Education,the Suprem
32、e Court granted federal judges the authority to order district wide busing to desegregate schoolsIt was the spring of 1971,and the Supreme Court had just approved busing as a tool to desegregate the schools.,http:/,Keyes v.Denver in 1972This case actually started in of 1869.It was the first ruling o
33、n school segregation in the Northern and Western states.The schools were accused of intentional segregation in the school system.It all started when children in Denver schools challenged the schools policy of racial segregation.The courts found that the schools were in fact segregated and the whole
34、school district was presumed illegally segregated,Fall,1972 All grades in Little Rock public schools are finally integrated.,1973 Attention Swifts to the North,In Keyes v.Denver School District No.1,413 U.S.189(1973),the Supreme Court considers the problems of Northern metropolitan segregation for t
35、he first time,as well as the rights of Latinos to desegregated education.Justice Powell argues that the harm of segregation is the same whether school segregation is mandated by law(de jure segregation)or produced by other factors(de facto segregation).However,he argues that busing as a remedy shoul
36、d be significantly limited.Source:http:/www.yale.edu/lawweb/jbalkin/brown/1973.html,1974,In 1974,the court invalidated a desegregation plan that involved busing students between heavily black Detroit and its heavily white suburbs.There could be no remedies across district lines for racial imbalance
37、within district lines,without proof that the lines themselves were drawn for racially discriminatory reasons.The case,Milliken vs.Bradley,was a turning point,for it deemed that voluntary white flight from urban centers was beyond the power of the courts to remedy.,Whites expressed their disapproval
38、of busing on opening day in 1974 by urging their children to boycott classes.The boycott was 90 percent effective.When black students walked out of the school to get on the buses and ride back to their homes in Roxbury,a black ghetto,they were pelted with stones.Once on the buses,the students were h
39、it by shattered glass as hostile crowds of whites threw heavier stones through the bus windows.,Black students board a school bus in this September 12,1974 photo outside South Boston High School as a police officer stands guard.,Judge Arthur Garrity issues a plan to desegregate Bostons public school
40、s,ordering the busing of 21,000 students.In response,race riots erupt in high schools in Hyde Park,Roxbury,and South Boston.,Antibusing Riot Boston,1974,A Year of Turmoil:1974,Anti Busing DemonstrationApril 5,1976,Stanley Formans Pulitzer Prize winning photo was published in the Boston HeraldThis pi
41、cture shows a white man ramming a flagpole,with American flag attached,into the chest of a black man during a demonstration over the enforced busing of schoolchildren from Dorchester to South Boston.,Congress prohibits the department of Health Education and Welfare from threatening to withhold feder
42、al funds to force school districts to bus students beyond the schools nearest their homes as a means of achieving racial integration.Source:http:/www.yale.edu/lawweb/jbalkin/brown/1976.htmlCan we add the votes from Congress?,Did You Know?,In August 1979,the ACLU and a group of black parents reopen t
43、he original Brown case in Topeka,arguing that twenty-five years after the decision many of the citys schools remain racially segregated.Boston is the city where public education began and the city with the first Jim Crow school system.Boston is the city where public schools were first integrated and
44、 where,a hundred years later,the struggle for integration had to be fought all over again.*In October,1787,fourteen blacks,describing themselves as taxpaying freemen of Boston(Massachusetts abolished slavery in 1783),submitted a petition to the legislature protesting that their children were exclude
45、d from the Boston public schools because of their race.We,therefore,must fear for our rising offspring to see them in ignorance in a land of gospel light,the black petitioners wrote,beseeching the Great and General Court to make some provision for the education of our dear children.Some of the petit
46、ioners had been patriots in the revolution,and all considered themselves citizens of the Commonwealth.Deliberately echoing the protests of the Sons of Liberty,they complained to the legislature of taxation without education.*The Politics of Black Education,17801980-Tony Hill,September 28,1977 At the
47、 20th anniversary of the desegregation crisis,Ralph G.Brodie,the 57-58 student body president,spoke a special occasion at Central where he paid tribute to the moderate,quiet voices who urged compliance with the law and an end to the crisis that eventually closed the four high schools at Little Rock
48、for a year.He said only a small group of Little Rock residents were responsible for the citys bigoted,violent and prejudiced image,adding,But for most of us,that image remains entirely undeserved.He addressed three of the Little Rock Nine who were present:Youve done much to assure the rights of othe
49、rs.Yours were acts of courage,and I salute you.,Brown II in 1979,In November of 1979 the Brown case was once again reopened because the courts found out that the Topeka schools were still segregated in some way.The school district formed a policy called open enrollment.It would permit students to tr
50、ansfer from school to school as they pleased.,Percentage of White Students in Schools Attended by the Average Black Student,1968-2000,Time line or did you know,In July 1971,as Commanding Officer of USS Jouett(DLG-29),Captain Gravely was promoted to Rear Admiral.He was the first African-American to a
