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1、1 About LANGUAGE The definition of Language Design Features of Language Functions of Language 2 About LINGUISTICS Main branches of linguistics Important distinctions in linguistics,Key points in this unit,Does the animal have language?,Linguistics,Linguistics,simply,is the study of language.Then,Wha
2、t is languages?Is language human specific?Do animals have language?,Language is purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols(Sapir,1921).Language is a system of arbitrary,vocal symbols which permit all people in a given
3、culture,or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact(Finocchiaro,1965).,The definition of Language,Language is a system of communication by sound,operating through the organs of speech,among members of a given community,and using vocal symbols possessing
4、arbitrary conventional meaning(Pei,1966),The definition of Language,The generally accepted definition:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication(Wardhaugh,1972).,The definition of Language,Explanations Firstly,language is a system,i.e.,elements of language are combi
5、ned according to rules.“iblk”,“Been he wounded has”are unacceptable.Secondly,language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with.,Explanations The fact that different language have different words for the same object is a g
6、ood illustration of the arbitrary nature of language.This also explain the symbolic nature of language:words are just symbols;they are associated with objects,actions,ideas,etc,by convention.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”.(Romeo and Juliet),Thirdly,language is vocal because the prim
7、ary medium is sound for all languages,no matter how well developed their writing systems are.All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper.“children spoken language read and
8、 write”,Explanations,Design Features of Language refer to thequintessential characteristics of human language,which can distinguish any human languagesystem from any non-human language system.They cover:Arbitrariness,Duality,Creativity,Displacement,and Cultural transmission.,Design Features of Langu
9、age,Design Features of Language,ArbitrarinessThis feature was first proposed by Saussure.The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural(logical,intrinsic)relationship to their meaning.“Different sounds are used to refer to the sameobject in different languages.”,tree,树,Baum,Arbitrariness,At lexical l
10、evel:A rose by any other name would smell as sweet(Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet,1594),Arbitrariness,at the syntactic level language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(a)He came in and sat down.(b)He sat down and came in.(c)He sat down after he came in.,How to understand Arbitrariness and conv
11、ention?,Duality Language possess the property of having two levels of structures:Sounds(lower or basic level)Meaning(higher level)Sounds are combined with one another to form meaningful units such as words.The secondary units sounds are meaningless and the primary units have distinct and identifiabl
12、e meaning.,Design Features of Language,Design Features of Language,Language can be used to send messages we have never said or heard before.Creativity is unique to human language.Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.,Creativit
13、y,Creativity,Words can be used in new ways to mean new things,and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.,cool,Creativity,Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create a
14、n infinite number of/endless sentences.“Limited rules can produce unlimited sentences.”(Chomsky,1958).,For instance:This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for i
15、ts graduates who.从前有座山,Creativity,Creativity Users can understand and produce words or sentences they have never heard before.Every day we sent messages that have never been sent before and understand novel messages.Much of what we say and hear for the first time;yet there seems no problem of unders
16、tanding.,Design Features of Language,Displacement,Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communication.,Thus,we can refer to Confucius,or the North Pole,even though the first has been dead for over 2550 yea
17、rs and the second is situated far away from us.,Design Features of Language,Displacement,Animal communication is normally under“immediate stimulus control”.For instance,a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger.,My master will be home in a few days.,The honeybees dance exhibits displacement
18、 a little bit:he can refer to a source of food,which is remote in time and space when he reports on it.,Displacement,Human language is stimulus-free.What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Our language enables us to communicate abou
19、t things that do not exist or do not yet exist.,Displacement,Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.,Cultural transmission Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.Language is culturally transmitted.It is passed on from one generat
20、ion to the next by teaching and learning,rather than by instinct.,Design Features of Language,Topics for discussion,No matter how eloquently a dog may bark,he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.-Bertrand RussellA rose by other name would smell as sweet.ShakespeareHe bought a book
21、which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who/tr/,/a/,/n/,/s/,/l/,/ei/,/t/-translate translate a novel-translate a novel by Lu Xun,Do we have language?,Questions,What if there were no language?What function does language play in daily life?,language func
22、tions,Ideational function(a model of experience as well as logical relations)；Interpersonal function(to establish and maintain social relationships)；Textual function(to creates relevance to context).,Metafunctions of Language proposed by Halliday,language functions,InformativeInterpersonalPerformati
23、veEmotivePhatic communionRecreationalMetalingual,Functions of Language,InformativeLanguage is used to convey messages,that is to inform somebody of some information.Declarative sentences are employed to realize the function.One of the features of this function is the proposition has the true or fals
24、e value,e.g.Water boils at 90C.Water boils at 100C.,InterpersonalBy far the most important sociological use of language,and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society,“polite expressions,humble words”,expression of identity.For example,the ways in which people address others(De
25、ar Sir,Dear Professor,Johnny),and refer to themselves(yours,your obedient servant)indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.,Functions of Language,Interpersonal In the framework of functional grammar,it is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse s
26、ituation and the addressers attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.,Functions of Language,Performative function This concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle,whose theory now forms the back-bone of pragmatics.For example,I now declare the m
27、eeting open.I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.,Functions of Language,Performative function It is to change the social status of persons,as in marriage ceremonies,the sentencing of criminals,the blessing of children,the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony,and the cursing of enemies.(for
28、mal and ritualized),Functions of Language,For example,in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 岁岁平安 as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.,The performative function can exten
29、d to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.,Emotive function to change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something:swear words,obscenities,involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery;conventional words/phrases,（e.g.,My God,Damn it,W
30、hat a sight,Wow,Ugh,Ow）,Functions of Language,Phatic communion It refers to the social interaction of language.Small,seemingly meaningless topic to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content,“health,weather”Expressions that help define and maintain inter
31、personal relations,such as slangs,jokes,jargons,ritualistic exchanges,switches to social and regional dialects.,Functions of Language,Phatic communion,We all use such small,seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.G
32、ood morning,God bless you,Nice day,hello吃饭了吗？到哪里去？Greetings,farewells,and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese,Recreational functionTo use language for the sheer joy of using it,such as a babys babbling,a chanters chanting,verbal dueling,poetry writing.To take one example,th
33、e well-known movie刘三姐features a scene of“对歌”(song dueling)mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language.,Functions of Language,Metalingual functionLanguage can be used to talk about itself.metalanguage(元语言；纯理语言)：certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particu
34、lar studies,e.g.approving,formal,non technical,old-fashioned;u,c,etc.,Functions of Language,Functions of Language,Linguistics,Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language.It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules,systems and principles of h
35、uman languages.,Linguistics has two main purposes,One is that it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language and describes languages in the light of the theory established.The other is that it examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific underst
36、anding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.,About LINGUISTICS,Main branches of linguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Anthropological Comput
37、ational,Scope of linguistics,Microlinguistics includes phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics and pragmatics.Macrolinguistics includes sociolinguistics,Psycholinguistics,neurolinguistics,stylistics,discourse analysis,computational linguistics,cognitive linguistics,applied linguistics,etc.,C
38、ore branches of Linguistics,LinguisticsLanguageSounds words sentences meaning Phonetics/phonology morphology syntax semantics/pragmatics,Macrolinguistics（Peripheral branches）,Psycholinguistics:Language+psychologySociolinguistics:Language+societyAnthropological linguistics:Language+anthropologyComput
39、ational linguistics:Language+computer,Microlinguistics,Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.It studies how speech sounds are articulated,transmitted,and received.Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language,it studies the ways speech sounds are organized.It can be
40、 seen as the functional phonetics of a particular language.Morphology is the study of the formation of words.It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemes.It can be considered as the grammar of words as syntax is the grammar of sentences.,Microlinguistics,Syntax deals with the comb
41、ination of words into phrases,clauses and sentences.It is the grammar of sentence construction.Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.Words have several types of meaning.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use.It
42、deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone,and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.PRAGMATICS=MEANING-SEMANTICS.,Macrolinguistics,Socilinguistics studies the relations between language and society:how social factors influ
43、ence the structure and use of language.Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind:the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition,comprehension and production of language.Neurolingistics is the study of language processing and language representation in the brain.I
44、t typically studies the disturbances of language comprehension and production caused by the damage of certain areas of the brain.,Macrolinguistics,Stylistics is the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features.It usually refers to the study of written language,including litera
45、ry text,but it also investigates spoken language sometimes.Discourse analysis,or text linguistics,is the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used.It deals with how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units.Computational linguis
46、tics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques,often with the help of a computer.,Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing,processing,and conveying information.Applied linguistics is pr
47、imarily concerned with the application of linguistic theories,methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience.,Macrolinguistics,Descriptive vs.prescriptive（描述和规定）If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use,
48、it is said to be descriptive;if it aims to lay down rules for“correct”behavior,i.e.,to tell people what they should say and what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.,Important distinctions in linguistics,Descriptive vs.prescriptive,Dont say X.People dont say X.The first is a prescripti
49、ve command,while the second is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.,Most modern linguistics is descriptive.It attempts to describe what people actually say.Traditional grammars told people how to use a language.As tradition
50、al grammars tried to lay down rules,they are often called prescriptive.Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language,while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.Language changes and develops.The changes should be observed and described.This does not deny tha
