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1、,On writing of argumentation,How to write a topic sentenceHow to write introductionHow to develop paragraphsHow to write conclusionHow to polish the language,Topic Sentence,主题句的基本要求 主题句必须由一个完整的句子构成，必须中肯扼要；必须把题目限定在该段落中恰如其分的范围内，即不是笼统的概括又不能过于具体。用词应当严谨精练，意思清楚。2.主题句的位置3.写主题句应注意的问题,主题句应该意义清楚 一个段落只有一个主题句，不
2、要范围太广，决不能将两个甚至更多的主题塞进一个段落中。e.g.Learning a foreign language is difficult.Learning English(French)is difficult.Learning English by oneself is difficult.,2）要确定段落扩展的关键词 主题句中的关键词用于限定段落主题的扩展范围和方向，可以是一个或几个单词。也可以称为致力点（controlling idea），它支配了主题句的思想，是必不可少的元素。e.g.Electricity is in our lives.Electricity is every
3、where in our lives.另外，正文部分各段落的主题句要与全文的主题密切关联，为之服务。各段主题句要处于同一平面上，互相不能重叠。,3）避免用客观事实充当主题句 主题句是用来阐述作者的观点和思想的，因此带有一定的主观色彩，而客观事实的句子无法制约主题发展的方向和范围，也不含由作者的主观思想，所以不能充当主题句。e.g.Radar is a device.Spring is a season.,Brainstorming例：Leonardo DiCaprio is a very charming actor.Firstly,he is very handsome.Secondly,h
4、e performed impressively in the film Titanic.Thirdly,he is easygoing and people-oriented.,The Internet,AdvantagesIt is the most convenient and effective way of communication.The Internet shortens the distance between people around the world.It allows access to a vast range of knowledge and informati
5、on.,Disadvantages Addiction to the Internet,especially online games will exert adverse influence over peoples life,work and study.It is harmful to our health to spend too much time surfing online.Pornographic websites will lead teenagers astray.,Live on Campus or off Campus,To live on campus-more op
6、portunities to expose oneself to people and ideas:teachers,lectures,seminars-easy access to school resources:library,lab and other facilities-less money in terms of accommodation-more occasions to develop the ability to get along with others-comparatively safe-easy for the school to take care of stu
7、dents study and life,To live off campus-more freedom and privacy-quieter environment for study-touching with society-good chance to be independent,To live on Campus,To live on campus may allow students an easy access to school resources in various forms.If they live in a dormitory,students will have
8、 more occasions to develop the ability to get along with others.The school authorities also favor the idea of living on campus,as in that case they may exert less efforts in taking care of students study and life.,To live off campus,To live in a rented house,students can enjoy a quieter environment
9、for study.It is a good chance for the students living off campus to be independent.To rent a house off campus also forces students to touch with society.,Development of paragraphs,罗列法(listing)例证法（exemplification）因果法（cause and effect）比较法和对比法(comparison and contrast)定义法（definition）分类法（classification）,
10、(1)罗列法(listing)罗列法可以用于整篇，也可以用于个别段落。注意点：a.所罗列的要点须属同层次内容，而且意义不能互相涵盖。例：Camping in wilderness is funb.要点之间的排列往往是从重要到次要，从一般到个别，从显而易见到鲜为人知。,(2)例证法（exemplification）常用于议论文和说明文的一种展开方式1)可以在不同论述层次上引用例子a.为说明文章中某一要点或某一句话而引用b.直接举例说明短文中心句或段落主题句 不同用途的例子在文中的重要程度及扩展的详略程度也各有所异。2)如果同时列举数例，应当注意适当的排序：一般到个别、显而易见的到鲜为人知的、最重
11、要的到最次要的,3)使用例证法一般需要特定的过渡语标记（transitional words），当然也有个别情况无标记举例For example/for instancetakeas proof(example,instance)such(as)/specifically/occasionallyAnother example I remember is,The most striking instance of this occurred when If any further examples were needed,I could mention can serve as an exam
12、pleto illustrate(the point)/as an illustrationA case in point is,(3)因果法（cause and effect）因果法主要是用来探索事物间因果关系的一种段落发展方式。作者通过客观、正确的推理，分析事物发生的原因及产生的结果来阐述主题句、展开段落，使段落合乎逻辑，使主题句的支配思想令人信服。采用因果法写作，一般通过三种途径：1)阐述某些事件，行为或想法的由来.2)阐述某些事件或行为所产生的结果.3)将原因和结果同时结合在一起来加以讨论。,例1:Why should the climate be warmer in the Sout
13、hern Hemisphere?One reason may be that most of the Earths land mass is in the Northern Hemisphere,while our oceans are mostly in the southern half of the world.Water does not absorb sunlight in the same way land does.Also,industrial pollution is much heavier in the Northern Hemisphere,where it may b
14、e acting as a sunlight blocker.,Reasons:location of land and water;2.industrial pollution多因的排列顺序：直接间接 表面根本（先果后因）,例2:Violence on television may be in great part responsible for the violence in our society.We have seen endless programs of mugging,knifing,robbery not only in half-hour or hour-long adul
15、t time segments but also in childrens cartoons and in childrens programming hours.It may be,then,that because crime has increased on the television screen,it has increased around us,in our society.Just as a child will speak with a foreign accent because that accent is constantly spoken in his enviro
16、nment,so he will pick up other behavioural responses.Accents,however,are not destructive.Violence is.,讨论结果时，先因后果,因果法常用的过渡语：,表原因：because(of),since,as,for,owing to,due to,for the reason that,attribute to,impute to,表结果：so,so as to,so that,therefore,thus,consequently,accordingly,as a result,hence,give r
17、ise to,表示因果关系可以利用上述过渡语，并采用不同句式，例如表达“市民购买力下降”和“低收入”之间的因果关系，可用多种句型表示：,The cause of/reason for the decline in the citizens purchasing power is their low income.One consequence/One result/The effect of the low income is a decline in the citizens purchasing power.The citizens income has become lower.Acco
18、rdingly,/As a consequence,/As a result,/Because of this,/Consequently,/For this reason,/Now,/So,/Therefore,/Thus,their purchasing power has declined.,As/Because/Now/Since the citizens income has become lower,their purchasing power has declined.Low income causes/leads to/produces/results in a decline
19、 in the citizens purchasing power.A decline in the citizens purchasing power is because of/caused by/due to/owing to their low income.,-The citizens income has become lower.Hence a decline in their purchasing power.-The citizens purchasing power declines as a result of/because of/on account of/owing
20、 to their low income.If/When the citizens income becomes lower,their purchasing power declines.,(4)比较法和对比法(comparison and contrast)注意点：1)比较或对比的对象必须属于同一意义范畴。如，wife vs.husband;bicycle vs.car;city life vs.country life,Chinese vs.English2)要遵循一致的比较模式。将相比较的对象称为items,把比较的方面称作points，则可以分为a.point-by-point pa
21、ttern(逐点比较法)b.block pattern(整块比较法),例：As a popular saying goes,“Health is better than wealth.”Good health enables one to enjoy his life and achieve what he hopes for in his career.On the other hand,poor health tends to deprive one of his interest in everything around him.Therefore,health is indispens
22、able to ones happy.,5.用定义法来扩展（definition）定义法是指在扩展段落时，解释词、短语或给各种事物和概念下定义，以解释和阐明某个概念的本质特征，说明段落的中心思想，从而达到作者陈述论证或反驳某一观点的目的。采用定义法扩展段落可通过同义词、反义词、术语例证以及比较和对照等方式给某一概念下定义。,What then,is generation gap?Generation gap refers to the distance and contradiction between the old and the young.Its a common phenomenon
23、 that exists everywhere in the world and influences both the old and the young.Generally speaking,generation gap results in different understanding and appreciation of the great and constant changes of the world,different reaction to new things,and different attitudes to traditional principles and b
24、elief.,To describe its potentials the computer needs a new name.Perhaps good a name as any is“information machine.”This term is intended to distinguish its function from that of a power machine,such as a loom.A loom performs the physical work of weaving a fabric;the information machine controls the
25、pattern being woven.Its purpose is not the performance of work but the ordering and supervision of the way in which the work is done.,6用分类法来扩展（classification）为了更清楚地说明某事物，把要解释的事物根据其特点分成较小地类别或单位，逐类阐述。,例：The brave fiesta(西班牙的宗教节日),also called the most artistic and cruel way of killing an animal,consist
26、s of six performances in which six bulls are killed by three bullfighters,one at a time.Each of these individual performances consists of three main parts whose continuity presents one of the most beautiful and bloody spectacles which people pay to watch during the sunny afternoon in Spain and certa
27、in countries in Latin America.,Useful expressions in classification:classes/sections/families/categories/units/parts/kinds/divisions/groups/types/items/sortsmay be classified according to/fall into(two categories)/can be divided into-may be further subdivided-comprises/,may be put into/We may sort i
28、nto,Introduction,引言段包括opening sentences 和thesis statement 两部分，主要有以下几种常见的写法：一：对文章的命题进行简单的陈述，缩小范围，自然过渡到命题，如：Topic:People should read only those books that are about real events,real people,and established facts.Write a composition of about 300 words to support whether you agree or disagree with the ab
29、ove statement.,Books can be factual about real events,real people and established facts like magazines,textbooks,and reference books.Books can also be imaginative about imaginary events,imaginary people and made-up facts like novels,poetry selections and play scripts.Whatever type a book belongs to,
30、factual or imaginary,a well-written book benefits their reader from a different angle;therefore,people should read books of both types.,二，对文章论述的重要概念下定义，如：Topic:People seldom forget special gifts or presents that they have received.Write a composition of about 300 words on this issue.,Special gifts a
31、re gifts that people rarely give out or receive on a particular occasion.Just because of rareness,special gifts are enriched with the feeling from the giver.The decision to give a special gift,the efforts made in finding one coupled with the rareness of the present makes a special gift deeply rememb
32、ered.,三，以发问的形式开头，如：Topic:What is one of the most important decisions you have made?Why do you consider this decision important?Write a composition of about 300 words on this issue.,What is an important decision?An important decision is one that influences us,especially our life to a great extent.An
33、important decision can be either right or wrong.Its importance lies in its impact on such great matters as our career,our way of life and our success in the society.,Conclusion,结尾段由结束语(closing statement)和结论句(concluding sentence)两部分组成。结束语创造文章结束的气氛，结论句则表达作者经过上面的讨论对主题有进一步的认识，并得出概括性结论。,结束语的写法有两种：一是总结正文，
34、二是用另一种表达方式重述文章的命题。Topic:Some important natural resources,such as forests,animals,or clean water are disappearing.Choose one resource and explain why it needs to be saved.Write a composition of about 300 words on this issue.,假设正文第一段主题句为Forests are home of animals.第二段主题句为Forests are sources of lumber,
35、meat and some drug ingredients.第三段主题句为 Forests are producers of oxygen.总结正文的结束语为：Since forest are shelters of wild animals,suppliers of lumber,meat,natural drug ingredients and oxygen,they are mans most valuable natural resources.,结论句的写法则有多种：提出更具概括性的结论 The extinction of species,the shortage of lumbe
36、r and drug ingredients,the reduction of oxygen and the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere all signal that we cannot afford to lose any more forests.,2.假设文章命题为 Forests should be saved immediately for a number of reasons.重述命题的结束语应为 Forests are so valuable to our human life that worldwide act
37、ions should be taken to stop losing any more of them.,2.提出建议 To stop losing more forests,we should educate people,especially those who have destroyed and who are going to destroy forests for one reason or another,in why forests must exist on the earth.,3.提出解决问题的办法 To achieve a most effective forest
38、saving campaign,we can hold worldwide boycotts against any products directly and indirectly coming out from forestland.,4.提出警告 If forests are continuously losing like today,one day in the future our humans will sustain the consequences of todays forest destruction,having no wild animals,lumber,natur
39、al drug ingredients and more importantly,oxygen.,5.提出预言 Should we not take actions to save forests today,one day in the future we will run out of such valuable natural resources as lumber,drug ingredients,animals and oxygen.,1句式错落技巧 作文要尽量用简洁明快的文字表达，但在必要时，特别是首尾段，要有意识地使用几个主从句或并列句。简单句的连用最好不要超过三句。短句用于强调
40、，长句表达更复杂的思想。长，短句的搭配应错落有秩。,e.g.I usually go to the country for a walk during the weekend.Last Sunday I decided to spend the whole day in the city for a change.I decided to visit the Tiananmen Square and the Zhongshan Park.It was early.I left home.The streets around were deserted.There were no usual c
41、rowds and traffic.Everything was strangely quiet.,Revised version,Though I usually go to the country for a walk during the weekend,I decided to spend the whole day in the city for a change last Sunday.I went to the Tiananmen Square and the Zhongshan Park.It was so early when I left home that the str
42、eets around my neighborhood were deserted.Without the usual crowds and traffic,everything was strangely quiet.,You have to be careful not to be attracted by the variety of books in a bookshop.It is very easy to enter the shop looking for a book on,say,ancient coins and to come out carrying a copy of
43、 the latest best-selling novel something which had not interested you up till then.This volume on the subject,however,happened to be so well illustrated and the part of the text you read proved so interesting,that you just had to buy it.This sort of thing can be very dangerous.Apart from running up
44、a huge account,you can waste a great deal of time wandering from section to section.,常见复杂句式：,定语从句同位语从句 分词伴随状语并列结构独立组织结构倒装句,Even those who dislike Hemingways other novels are likely to enjoy The Old Man and the Sea,which I consider it one of the literary masterpieces of our time.,定语从句,分词伴随状语,Anyway,l
45、uck may influence us,but we should never give up halfway,convinced that our effort will pay in the long run.,With the development of peoples living standard in modern society people consider entertainment to be indispensable to their life.,同位语从句 定语从句,This was just after the First World War,a time wh
46、en Americans were learning,probably for the first time on this massive scale,that there was variation between the English spoken in Britain and in the United States.,Many public school advocates take a harsh attitude toward home schoolers,perceiving their actions as the ultimate slap in the face of
47、public education and a damaging move for the children.Home-schoolers harbor few kind words for public schools,charging shortcomings that range from lack of religious perspective in the curriculum to a herdlike approach to teaching children.,分词伴随状语 并列结构,Rewrite the following sentencesa.Youll find you
48、 are fit for business and you can make it your main job.b.We will own nothing at all if we depend on luck.c.Dissatisfaction makes people produce desire for better things.d.Since people are always not satisfied with their present situation,they want further development.,e.Money can improve their livi
49、ng standard.f.Eating outside has the most advantage that we can go at anytime when we finish eating without doing any washing.g.In this continued process,people make progress.h.I am not good at math,but at English.,a.Youll find you are fit for business and you can make it your main job.,a.You will f
50、ind that you are cut out for business and you can make it your career.,b.We will own nothing at all if we depend on luck.,b.We will get nowhere if we rely on luck.,c.Dissatisfaction makes people produce desire for better things.,c.Dissatisfaction impels people for the better.,d.Since people are alwa
