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1、The more comprehensive definition of research is:,Research is a scientific undertaking which,by means of logical and systematized techniques aims to:discover new facts or verify and test old facts analyze their sequence,interrelationships and causal explanations The ultimate purpose of research is t
2、o:Fill in gaps in informationFind answers to questions so far unexplained,Research is the systematic collection,analysis&interpretation of data to answer a certain question or solve a problem.,Characteristics of research:It demands a clear statement of the problem It requires a plan It builds on exi
3、sting data,using both positive&negative findings New data should be collected as required&be organized in such a way that they answer the original research questions.,Research serves to major purposes,First:Basic research is necessary to generate new knowledge&technology Second:Applied research is n
4、ecessary to identify priority problems&to design&evaluate policies&programs.,CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH TOPIC,RelevanceAvoidance of duplication Feasibility Political acceptability Applicability urgency of data needed Ethical acceptability,What Stimulates People to Undertake Research?,A person
5、 may be stimulated to undertake research activities because of:A genuine interest to add to the body of knowledge and understandingTo create or develop new/better tools methods programmes,equipments etc.Others may undertake research as a means of earning:a livelihooda better career or position,an ac
6、ademic degree orSelf gratification.,Why Learn Research Methodology?,Whatever the reason for undertaking research,the right way of doing it should be learnt.No country is rich enough to permit wastage.Disorganized pursuits are wasteful and not desirable.This is true also in research.No matter what th
7、e reason be for undertaking a research work,the investigator needs to learn,Contd.,Correct methods.Systematic&methodical approach in important for several reasons:To obtained true&dependable information To obtained optimum output in return for the input in terms of money,material,human efforts&time
8、invested in the work.To allow repeatability&there by verification of findings.,Sequence of Steps in a Research Work:,The steps involved in a research usually have the following sequence:Problem identification.Knowledge gathering about the problem,and finding the lacunae in the existing knowledge:Pro
9、blem statement.Precise statement of research questions or hypothesis(es)formulation.Statement of objectives of research.Planning research.Selection of research design and methodology.,Contd,Planning data collection.Data collection.Data analysis,interpretation of findings and drawing of inferences.Wr
10、iting research report based on the data.Dissemination of research findings through publication of report or presentation in a seminar.The total process of research is an unending cycle.In true sense it may be considered helical,because ideas generated from one research can be food for thought and ba
11、sis for further research.,A researchable problem(P)is one where:,discrepancy between the expected(E)and the actual(A)situation exists.(P=E-A)the discrepancy raises questions Why?.andthere are more than one possible answers to the questions.,Example:,Ideally we expect that all mothers should breastfe
12、ed their infants for full two years or even longer.But actually few mothers do so i.e.there is a discrepancy in the actual the expected behaviour of mothers.Therefore we can say that problem exists.This problem raises several questions.,simple ones could be,Q.1.Why mothers do not breastfeed their in
13、fants for 2 year ORQ.2.What are the reasons for mothers discontinuing breast feeding earlier than 2 years?,There can be more than one possible answers to the questions,Mothers do not have enough breast milk after the first months.Mothers have some infection or disease of breasts or nip which hampers
14、 breast feeding for a longer duration.The babies do not tolerate breast milk well.The mother may have a total dislike for breast feeding baby and so on.,SOME SPECIFIC REASONS FOR UNDERTAKING LITERATURE REVIEW:,Scientific literature is searched&reviewed to:Better know&understand the already known fac
15、ts&concepts.Discovered what is a yet undiscovered i.e.to identyfiy the unanswered questions&gaps in information.Avoid repettition of a work already done.Find out about the research design,universe,population,sampling unit,samplw size,sampling technique,methods&procedures used by others.Learn about d
16、ifficulties&problems encountered&how these were solved by other workers doing a similar study.,Contd.,Critically analysis reported data to discover fallacies&inconsistencies as well as strengths.Note the findings the other researches for comparison with the findings of the research in hand.,Tips on
17、how to do a good literature review,Here are a few tips for the beginner:Be selective.SCAN the summaries and abstracts of the articles first and then LIFT or LEAVE the journal depending on whether the material meets your needs.Take prompt notes.Do not postpone note taking.Use small index cards to tak
18、e notes and write journalreferences on the reverse side.Use one card for each reference.Arrange and store the cards carefully(you can use anempty I litre ice cream box for this purpose).,This statement should include a summary of information so for gathered by him on:,Magnitude of the problem?Time f
19、rame:when does the problem occur?Which geographic area is affected more?Which population groups are affected more?What are the probable reasons for the problem to occur or persist?Are there controversies regarding these reasons?,Contd,Has any attempt been made in the past for solving the problem?If
20、yes,what results were obtained and to what extent the problem was solved?What remains to be solved?What aspects of the problem s.have not been.studied.in the past?,Relationship of research question and hypothesis,There is often a debate on whether one writes research questions or a hypothesis for th
21、e study.Apparently contradictory,they are in fact to sides of the same coin.Hypothesis are nothing but the logical assumed answers to the research questions under exploration.As example let us take the research question“why mother do not breast feed their infants for 2 years?”,Research objectives ma
22、y be stated as:,General objectiveUltimate objective andSpecific objectivesGeneral Objective:General objective is a short statement that tells in a summary form what will be(was)done during the study.,Ultimate Objective:,A statement that tells about the benefits/implicafions/Wisafionof study findings
23、(if and when,they are put to use)it calledultimate objective.In other wordsithis statement tells us aboutthe sign*ificance of the study and how it will help in the policydecisions,future planning or actions with regards to theproblem.Specific Objectives:Every research work involves several tasks.Sta
24、tements that tell about each task that will be(was)undertaken during the research work,are termed as specific objectives.,Some Research Jargons,PopulationIn research an aggregate of items(animate or inanimate)having common traits is termed as population.Thus men,ponds,mango trees,cows,houses,schools
25、,hospitals or a collection of urine or blood specimens or any other item may become population in research terms depending upon the nature of research.2.Sample:The subgroup of population selected for an investigation to get an idea about the population is termed as sample.3.Sampling Frame:All listed
26、 units or items constituting the study population are called the sampling frame.4.Sample size:The number of persons or sampling units selected from the population of the stucly comprise the sample size.5.Sampling UniftEach member of the sample is the sampling unit or unit of analysis.Sampling units
27、about which information is collected may be referred to variously,depending upon the nature of study.The following terms are com man:,Variable,In a preceding section we have mentioned that hypotheses are the basis of research.We have defined hypotheses as statements of researchers assumptions about
28、the relationship between variables.It is essential at this point that we understand the term variable.Variables are characteristics or attributes that may vary from person to person,place to place,or from time to time.Any biological,physical,chemical,social,behavioral or environmental characteristic
29、s can be considered as variable in a research.e.g.,age,parity,temperature,pressure,pH level,education,occupation,knowledge,skill,habits,ventilation etc.These are factors which the researchers are often interested to study.According to their role,variables may be termed as independent,dependent or in
30、tervening.,Contd,Dependent variables are the variables that are influenced by other variables.In other words they may be the results,effect or outcome.Independent variables influence,regulate or cause the dependent variables.Note the statements below:The operational definition on the other hand,diff
31、ers from the dictionary meaning and states the variable in workable and measurable terms.Often there are some factors that infuence both the independent&dependent variable&thereby modify(strength of weaken)the effect of outcome.Such factors are known as confounding variables.For example in a study o
32、f“Effect of occupation on coronary heart disease”(where occupation is independent&coronary heart disease dependent variable)age is a confounding variable because,it infuences both occupation&coronary heart diseasee.,Contd,To have unbiased and generalisable findings,appropriate sampling techniques an
33、d the right sample size are essential.There are two main ways of selecting a sample.1.Probability sampling2.Nonprobability sampling1.Probability Sampling:In this technique,the sampling units are so selected that each unit in the sampling frame has equal probability of getting included in the sample.
34、No unit receives preference over the other or no unit is left out intentionally to tilt the results in the direction that the researcher is more inclined to accept.,Contd,Probability Sampling,can be carried out using any of the following techniques.Simple Random SamplingSystematic SamplingStratified
35、 SamplingMultistage SamplingCluster SamplingOf the above five techniques,the simple random sampling(SRS)if correctly carried out is the most unbiased technique.The remaining four are modifications adopted when simple random sampling is hot practical.,Sample Size,The number of sampling units necessar
36、y for a study has to be determined prior to implementation of the study.This decision has to be taken by the researcher,alone or better still in consultation with a statistician.The following three factors will influence the decision regarding the total number of sampling units needed i.e.sample siz
37、e:1.Rate of prevalence in the population,of the disease or condition to be investigated(the more prevalent the condition the fewer the houses needed to be visited for collection of data for the study and vice versa).2.Size of(standard)error acceptable to the researcher(The smaller the size of the er
38、ror acceptable to the researcher,the larger the sample size needed and viceversa).,Contd,3.The degree of confidence which the researcher wishes to have in his findings.(The greater the confidence the researcher desires in his findings,the larger the sample size he will need and vice versa).Statistic
39、ally this level of confidence is indicated by the term confidence interval or confidence limits.All the above points can be shown in a simple equation as follows:n=Z 2(p x q)d2Here Z is the confidence limit,p is the prevalence rate,q is IP(or proportion of persons notsuffering from the disease),d is
40、 the acceptable standard error and n is the required samplesize.,n=,Scales of measurements question,Attributes,characteristics or key factors of interest i.e.variables in a study,may be of different nature.These variables can be measured under four levels or scales of measurement as follows:1.Nomina
41、l Used for categorical variables2.Ordinal3.Interval Used for numerical variables4.RatioEach of these four scales is in ascending order of power over the preceding one,and is suitable for different types of variables as shown.,QUESTIONS THAT ARE NOT RELATED TO THE OBJECTIVES OVERBURDEN THE QUESTION I
42、T IS IMPORTANT,To be simple and clearGKRb gvUi PvjKK vuo Kwiq GKwevwMR cdmi ejjb,say,your tubular air container has lost most of its rotundity.PvjK t wK ejjb cdmit The cylindrical apparatus which supports yourvehicle is no longer inflated.PvjKt&Avcbvi K_v Avwg wVK eySZ cviwQ bv|cdmit The elastic fab
43、ric surrounding the circular frame whose successive revolutions bear you onward in space has failed to retain its pristine roundness.PvjKt eySjvg bv|MoGKUv QvU Qj gvUi PvjK ejjt Avcbvi PvKvi nvIqv ewoq MQ|GZb eySjb gvUi PvjK,Contd,The question should be of appropriate length(number of question shoul
44、d be reasonable)Question should be in logical order.Length of the questions should be simple&clear.Questions should be relevant to the hypothesis and objective.Easier questions should be asked first.Questions should e specific not vague.Embarrassing questions should be avoided or phrased in a suitab
45、le language and wherever possible kept for a relatively later part of the interview.Arrangement of the questions should be such that the preceding answer does not influence the answer to the succeeding question.Double barreled questions should be avoided Do not ask questions suggestive of answers.,P
46、arts of a questionnaire:,In general a standard questionnaire consists of the following sections:A title:Clear and brief.An Introductory remark:Briefly telling something about the survey and what is expected from the respondent and assurance about confidentiality.Instructions:For studies involving interviewers other than the,
