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1、Socrates,Plato and his doctrines,3,Reading and discussion,The Sophists and Socrates,The Eleatic philosophers Parmenides and Zeno were interested chiefly in arguing that reality consists of a changeless single reality,the ONE.Heraclitus and the Pythagoreans,on the other hand,described reality as alwa
2、ys changing,full of flux,and consisting of a multitude of different things.Socrates and the Sophists showed less interest in physical nature and,instead,steered philosophy into the arena of morality:Could there be a universal concept of goodness if people were incapable of knowing any universal trut
3、h?,The sophists were primarily practical people and especially competent in grammar,writing,and public discourse.These skills made them uniquely qualified to address a special social need within Athenian society.,The Sophists（智者）,The change in the philosophical concerns:Focus on nature-asking large
4、cosmic questions moral behavior-asking basic ethical questions universal truth.,“Man is the measure of all things,of the things that are,that they are,and of the things that are not,that they are not.”,He is the oldest and most influential sophist.,Protagoras(about 490-420B.C.),Socrates,Plato,Aristo
5、tle,Socrates(469-399 BC),Socrates was the first to call philosophy down from the heavens and to place it in cities,and even to introduce it into homes and compel it to inquire about life and standards and goods and evils.-Cicero,His insistence that the grander tasks of philosophy will have to wait u
6、ntil we achieve understanding of what we take for granted courage,justice and other virtues,the idea of living a good life,our claims to understanding.,1.Virtue is knowledge(美德即知识）2.“The only thing I know is that I know nothing”.3.Socrates the intellectual midwife（助产婆）4.Socratic irony（苏格拉底式反讽）5.An u
7、nexamined life is not worth living.6.I eat to live not live to eat.7.He compared himself as a“gadfly”on the big strong horse.Socrates quickly became the symbolic figure of the Philosopher,the person devoting their life to philosophical enquiry and willing to die for it.,Socrates Pedagogics:Socrates
8、was convinced that the surest way to attain reliable knowledge was through the practice of disciplined conversation,with this conversation acting as an intellectual midwife.He would often expose contradictions lurking beneath the other persons view_ a technique called elenchus_ and thereby force the
9、 person to abandon his or her misdirected opinion.1.“讥讽”即通过不断追问，使对方自相矛盾，承认对此问题无知；“助产术”即帮助对方抛弃谬见，找到正确普遍的东西，即帮助真理问世；“归纳”即从个别事物中找出共性，通过个别的分析比较来寻找一般规律；“定义”即把单一的概念归到一般中去,In 399 B.C.at the age of 70 Socrates was put on trial on a charge of“injuring the city”by not acknowledging its gods and corrupting the
10、 young.This trial was recorded by Plato in the dialogue“The Apology of Socrates(申辩篇).,Socrates Trial and Death,1.What does the charges brought against Socrates?2.Since Socrates does not believe that he is wise,why does he not reject the oracle as false?3.What was his final interpretation of the mean
11、ing of the oracle?Explain why he adopted this interpretation.4.What reason does Socrates give for his conviction?5.What prophecy does Socrates make with regard to the effect of his death on the Athenians?Why does Socrates assume that his condemnation is actually something good?6.How does the“gadfly”
12、analogy help interpret Socrates the man?,5.What is Socrates view of death?6.Why does Socrates especially want to talk to Palamedes and Ajax(son of Telamon)in the afterlife?7.Was Socrates trying to get himself acquitted?If he was not,what effect was he trying to exert on the jury?8.What moral values
13、does Socrates uphold?,Plato(427-347BC),The safest characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.-Alfred North Whitehead,Plato was profoundly impressed by Socrates insistence on putting enquiry before doctrines,and the search for unders
14、tanding before ambitious claims.,Platos distinctive ideas,1.Form or Idea2.Caveman3.Divided line4.The philosopher-king 5.His aesthetics6.Platonic loveWomens potential and the family,Platos theory of the Forms is his most significant philosophical contribution.In a nutshell,the Forms are those changel
15、ess,eternal,and nonmaterial essences or patterns of which the actual visible objects we see are only poor copies.There is the Form of the Beauty,and all the beautiful things we see are mere copies of that form.,The form,柏拉圖的洞穴說指出：人們滿足於地窖裡的燈火與牆上影像，不知道外邊地面上的陽光才是真實的。,The cavemen,現代的電影院，對影像的依賴是柏拉圖洞穴說的翻版
16、。後現代的電視及電腦螢幕之扎頻，資訊影像也是如。,The Divided Line,Modes of Thought,The GoodIntelligible World,The GoodForms,Mathematical Objects,The SunVisible World,y,x,objects,Knowledge,Thinking,Things,Images,Belief,Imaging,Knowledge,opinion,Knowledge does not involve simply the passing facts and appearance.Knowledge see
17、ks what truly is:its concern is with Being.There are 4 ways to know the Form:1.recollection.2.dialectic:the power of abstracting the essence of things and discovering the relationships of all divisions of knowledge to each other.3.desire.4.Love,which leads people step by step,from the beautiful obje
18、ct to the beautiful thought and then to the very essence of Beauty itself.,I.Euthyphro,(The)Apology(of Socrates),Crito,Phaedo II.Cratylus,Theaetetus,Sophist,Statesman III.Parmenides,Philebus,(The)Symposium,Phaedrus IV.First Alcibiades(1),Second Alcibiades(2),Hipparchus(2),(The)(Rival)Lovers(2)V.Thea
19、ges(2),Charmides,Laches,Lysis VI.Euthydemus,Protagoras,Gorgias,Meno VII.(Greater)Hippias(major)(1),(Lesser)Hippias(minor),Ion,Menexenus VIII.Clitophon(1),(The)Republic,Timaeus,Critias IX.Minos(2),(The)Laws,Epinomis(2),Epistles(1),In the list below,works by Plato are marked(1)if there is no consensus
20、 among scholars as to whether Plato is the author,and(2)if most scholars agree that Plato is not the author of the work.Unmarked works are assumed to have been written by Plato.,Quotations From Plato,Either death is a state of nothingness and utter unconsciousness,or,as men say,there is a change and
21、 migration of the soul from this world to another Now if death be of such a nature,I say that to die is to gain;for eternity is then only a single night.-Apologia,40Man is a prisoner who has no right to open the door of his prison and run away A man should wait,and not take his own life until God su
22、mmons him.-Phaedo,62False words are not only evil in themselves,but they infect the soul with evil.-91Friends have all things in common.-Phaedrus,279He who is of a calm and happy nature will hardly feel the pressure of age,but to him who is of an opposite disposition youth and age are equally a burd
23、en.-The Republic,bk.i,329d,Mankind ensures injustice fearing that they may be the victims of it,and not because they shrink from committing it.-344c The judge should not be young;he should have learnt to know evil,not from his own soul,but from late and long observation of the nature of evil in othe
24、rs;knowledge should be his guide,not personal experience.-iii,409bEverything that deceives may be said to enchant.-413cBodily exercise,when compulsory,does no harm to the body;but knowledge which is acquired under compulsion obtains no hold on the mind.-vii,536eMankind will not get rid of its evils
25、until either the class of those who philosophize in truth and rectitude reach political power or those most powerful in cities,under some divine dispensation,really get to philosophizing.-VIIth Letter,326a-b,And the true order of going,or being led by another,to the things of love,is to begin from t
26、he beauties of earth and mount upwards for the sake of that other beauty,using these steps only,and from one going on to two,and from two to all fair forms to fair practices,and from fair practices to fair notions,until from fair notions he arrives at the notion of absolute beauty,and at last knows
27、what the essence of beauty is.-211Wealth is the parent of luxury and indolence,and poverty of meanness and viciousness,and both of discontent.-iv,422aThe direction in which education starts a man will determine his future life.-425b,Significance:Platos comprehensive treatment of knowledge was so pow
28、erful that his philosophy became one of the most influential strands in the history of Western thought.Unlike his predecessors,who focused upon one single main problems,Plato brought together all the major concerns of human thought into a coherent organization of knowledge.And his great influence st
29、ems from the manner in which he brought all these diverse philosophical concerns into a unified system of thought.,Platos comprehensive system of philosophy dealt with,among other things,the problem of how,in the complex,ever-changing world,men were to attain knowledge.The reply he gave was:men have
30、 knowledge because of the existence of certain general“ideas”or Form,like beauty,truth,and goodness.His philosophy is called Idealism because in his system of philosophy only such“Forms”as beauty,truth and goodness are regarded as completely real while the physical world is regarded as only relatively real.,
