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1、How to Recognize a Poem When You See One-Stanley Fish1 Last time I sketched out an argument by which meanings are the property neither of fixed and stable texts nor of free and independent readers but of interpretive communities that are responsible both for the shape of a readers activities and for
2、 the texts those activities produce. In this lecture I propose to extend that argument so as to account not only for the meanings a poem might be said to have but for the fact of its being recognized as a poem in the first place. And once again I would like to begin with an anecdote.2 In the summer
3、of 1971 I was teaching two courses under the joint auspices of the Linguistic Institute of America and the English Department of the State University of New York at Buffalo. I taught these courses in the morning and in the same room. At 9:30 I would meet a group of students who were interested in th
4、e relationship between linguistics and literary criticism. Our nominal subject was stylistics but our concerns were finally theoretical and extended to the presuppositions and assumptions which underlie both linguistic and literary practice. At 11:00 these students were replaced by another group who
5、se concerns were exclusively literary and were in fact confined to English religious poetry of the seventeenth century. These students had been learning how to identify Christian symbols and how to recognize typological patterns and how to move from the observation of these symbols and patterns to t
6、he specification of a poetic intention that was usually didactic or homiletic. On the day I am thinking about, the only connection between the two classes was an assignment given to the first which was still on the blackboard at the beginning of the second. It read:Jacobs-Rosenbaum Levin Thorne Haye
7、s Ohman (?)3 I am sure that many of you will already have recognized the names on this list, but for the sake of the record, allow me to identify them. Roderick Jacobs and Peter Rosenbaum are two linguists who have coauthored a number of textbooks and coedited a number of anthologies. Samuel Levin i
8、s a linguist who was one of the first to apply the operations of transformational grammar to literary texts. J. P. Thorne is a linguist at Edinburgh who, like Levin, was attempting to extend the rules of transformational grammar to the notorious ir-regularities of poetic language. Curtis Hayes is a
9、linguist who was then using transformational grammar in order to establish an objective basis for his intuitive impression that the language of Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is more complex than the language of Hemingways novels. And Richard Ohmann is the literary critic who, more tha
10、n any other, was responsible for introducing the vocabulary of transformational grammar to the literary community. Ohmanns name was spelled as you see it here because I could not remember whether it contained one or two ns. In other words, the question mark in parenthesis signified nothing more than
11、 a faulty memory and a desire on my part to appear scrupulous. The fact that the names appeared in a list that was arranged vertically, and that Levin, Thorne, and Hayes formed a column that was more or less centered in relation to the paired names of Jacobs and Rosenbaum, was similarly accidental a
12、nd was evidence only of a certain compulsiveness if, indeed, it was evidence of anything at all.4 In the time between the two classes I made only one change. I drew a frame around the assignment and wrote on the top of that frame p. 43. When the members of the second class filed in I told them that
13、what they saw on the blackboard was a religious poem of the kind they had been studying and I asked them to interpret it. Immediately they began to perform in a manner that, for reasons which will become clear, was more or less predictable. The first student to speak pointed out that the poem was pr
14、obably a hieroglyph, although he was not sure whether it was in the shape of a cross or an altar. This question was set aside as the other students, following his lead, began to concentrate on individual words, interrupting each other with suggestions that came so quickly that they seemed spontaneou
15、s. The first line of the poem (the very order of events assumed the already constituted status of the object) received the most attention: Jacobs was explicated as a reference to Jacobs ladder, traditionally allegorized as a figure for the Christian ascent to heaven. In this poem, however, or so my
16、students told me, the means of ascent is not a ladder but a tree, a rose tree or rosenbaum. This was seen to be an obvious reference to the Virgin Mary who was often characterized as a rose without thorns, itself an emblem of the immaculate conception. At this point the poem appeared to the students
17、 to be operating in the familiar manner of an iconographic riddle. It at once posed the question, How is it that a man can climb to heaven by means of a rose tree? and directed the reader to the inevitable answer: by the fruit of that tree, the fruit of Marys womb, Jesus. Once this interpretation wa
18、s established it received support from, and conferred significance on, the word thorne, which could only be an allusion to the crown of thorns, a symbol of the trial suffered by Jesus and of the price he paid to save us all. It was only a short step (really no step at all) from this insight to the r
19、ecognition of Levin as a double reference, first to the tribe of Levi, of whose priestly function Christ was the fulfillment, and second to the unleavened bread carried by the children of Israel on their exodus from Egypt, the place of sin, and in response to the call of Moses, perhaps the most fami
20、liar of the old testament types of Christ. The final word of the poem was given at least three complementary readings: it could be omen, especially since so much of the poem is concerned with foreshadowing and prophecy; it could be Oh Man, since it is mans story as it intersects with the divine plan
21、 that is the poems subject; and it could, of course, be simply amen, the proper conclusion to a poem celebrating the love and mercy shown by a God who gave his only begotten son so that we may live.5 In addition to specifying significances for the words of the poem and relating those significances t
22、o one another, the students began to discern larger structural patterns. It was noted that of the six names in the poem three-Jacobs, Rosenbaum, and Levin-are Hebrew, two-Thorne and Hayes-are Christian, and one-Ohman-is ambiguous, the ambiguity being marked in the poem itself (as the phrase goes) by
23、 the question mark in parenthesis. This division was seen as a reflection of the basic distinction between the old dis-pensation and the new, the law of sin and the law of love. That distinction, however, is blurred and finally dissolved by the typological perspective which invests the old testament
24、 events and heroes with new testament meanings. The structure of the poem, my students concluded, is therefore a double one, establishing and undermining its basic pattern (Hebrew vs. Christian) at the same time. In this context there is finally no pressure to resolve the ambiguity of Ohman since th
25、e two possible readings-the name is Hebrew, the name is Christian-are both authorized by the reconciling presence in the poem of Jesus Christ. Finally, I must report that one student took to counting letters and found, to no ones surprise, that the most prominent letters in the poem were S, O, N.6 S
26、ome of you will have noticed that I have not yet said anything about Hayes. This is because of all the words in the poem it proved the most recalcitrant to interpretation, a fact not without consequence, but one which I will set aside for the moment since I am less interested in the details of the e
27、xercise than in the ability of my students to perform it. What is the source of that ability? How is it that they were able to do what they did? What is it that they did? These questions are important because they bear directly on a question often asked in literary theory. What are the distinguishin
28、g features of literary language? Or, to put the matter more colloquially, How do you recognize a poem when you see one? The commonsense answer, to which many literary critics and linguists are committed, is that the act of recognition is triggered by the observable presence of dis-tinguishing featur
29、es. That is, you know a poem when you see one because its language displays the characteristics that you know to be proper to poems. This, however, is a model that quite obviously does not fit the present example. My students did not proceed from the noting of distinguishing features to the recognit
30、ion that they were confronted by a poem; rather, it was the act of recognition that came first-they knew in advance that they were dealing with a poem- and the distinguishing features then followed.7 In other words, acts of recognition, rather than being triggered by formal characteristics, are thei
31、r source. It is not that the presence of poetic qualities compels a certain kind of attention but that the paying of a certain kind of attention results in the emergence of poetic qualities. As soon as my students were aware that it was poetry they were seeing, they began to look with poetry-seeing
32、eyes, that is, with eyes that saw everything in relation to the properties they knew poems to possess. They knew, for example (because they were told by their teachers), that poems are (or are supposed to be) more densely and intricately organized than ordinary communications; and that knowledge tra
33、nslated itself into a willingness-one might even say a determi-nation-to see connections between one word and another and between every word and the poems central insight. Moreover, the assumption that there is a central insight is itself poetry-specific, and presided over its own realization. Havin
34、g assumed that the collection of words before them was unified by an informing purpose (because unifying purposes are what poems have), my students proceeded to find one and to formulate it. It was in the light of that purpose (now assumed) that significances for the individual words began to sugges
35、t themselves, significances which then fleshed out the assumption that had generated them in the first place. Thus the meanings of the words and the interpretation in which those words were seen to be embedded emerged together, as a consequence of the operations my students began to perform once the
36、y were told that this was a poem.8 It was almost as if they were following a recipe-if its a poem do this, if its a poem, see it that way-and indeed definitions of poetry are recipes, for by directing readers as to what to look for in a poem, they instruct them in ways of looking that will produce w
37、hat they expect to see. If your definition of poetry tells you that the language of poetry is complex, you will scrutinize the language of something identified as a poem in such a way as to bring out the complexity you know to be there. You will, for example, be on the look-out for latent ambiguitie
38、s; you will attend to the presence of alliterative and consonantal patterns (there will always be some), and you will try to make something of them (you will always succeed); you will search for meanings that subvert, or exist in a tension with the meanings that first present themselves; and if thes
39、e operations fail to produce the anticipated complexity, you will even propose a significance for the words that are not there, because, as everyone knows, everything about a poem, including its omissions, is significant. Nor, as you do these things, will you have any sense of performing in a willfu
40、l manner, for you will only be doing what you learned to do in the course of becoming a skilled reader of poetry. Skilled reading is usually thought to be a matter of discerning what is there, but if the example of my students can be generalized, it is a matter of knowing how to produce what can the
41、reafter be said to be there. Interpretation is not the art of construing but the art of constructing. Interpreters do not decode poems; they make them.9 To many, this will be a distressing conclusion, and there are a number of arguments that could be mounted in order to forestall it. One might point
42、 out that the circumstances of my students performance were special. After all, they had been concerned exclusively with religious poetry for some weeks, and therefore would be uniquely vulnerable to the deception I had practiced on them and uniquely equipped to impose religious themes and patterns
43、on words innocent of either. I must report, however, that I have duplicated this experiment any number of times at nine or ten universities in three countries, and the results are always the same, even when the participants know from the beginning that what they are looking at was originally an assi
44、gnment. Of course this very fact could itself be turned into an objection: doesnt the reproducibility of the exercise prove that there is something about these words that leads everyone to perform in the same way? Isnt it just a happy accident that names like Thorne and Jacobs have counterparts or n
45、ear counterparts in biblical names and symbols? And wouldnt my students have been unable to do what they did if the assignment I gave to the first class had been made up of different names? The answer to all of these questions is no. Given a firm belief that they were confronted by a religious poem,
46、 my students would have been able to turn any list of names into the kind of poem we have before us now, because they would have read the names within the assumption that they were informed with Christian significances. (This is nothing more than a literary analogue to Augustines rule of faith.) You
47、 can test this assertion by replacing Jacobs-Rosenbaum, Levin, Thorne, Hayes, and Ohman with names drawn from the faculty of Kenyon College-Temple, Jordan, Seymour, Daniels, Star, Church. I will not exhaust my time or your patience by performing a full-dress analysis, which would involve, of course,
48、 the relation between those who saw the River Jordan and those who saw more by seeing the Star of Bethlehem, thus fulfilling the prophecy by which the temple of Jerusalem was replaced by the inner temple or church built up in the heart of every Christian. Suffice it to say that it could easily be do
49、ne (you can take the poem home and do it yourself) and that the shape of its doing would be constrained not by the names but by the interpretive assumptions that gave them a significance even before they were seen. This would be true even if there were no names on the list, if the paper or blackboard were blank; the blankness would present no problem to the interpreter, who would immediately see in it the void out of which God created the earth, or the abyss into which unregenerate
