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1、Humanitarian Intervention: Legality, Justice and LegitimacyT.D. Gill* Associate Professor of Public International Law, Utrecht University; Professor of Military Law, University of Amsterdam.1.IntroductionThe current humanitarian crisis in the Sudan has reawakened the discussion concerning the rights
2、 and wrongs of humanitarian intervention. See e.g. The Economist 31 July 6 August 2004, “Sudan Cant Wait” pp. 32-33 and cover illustration. Some four-five years and two years ago, this discussion was carried out intensively at the diplomatic level and in the pages of academic journals against the ba
3、ckground of the NATO intervention in Kosovo. See inter alia the Report issued by Amnesty International, Kosovo: After Tragedy Justice (1999), A. Cassese, “Ex inuria ius oritur: Are We Moving Towards International Legitimization of Forcible Humanitarian Countermeasures in the World Community?” n 10 E
4、JIL (1999), p. 23; C. Chinkin, “Kosovo: A “Good” or “Bad” War in 93 AJIL (1999) p. 84; L. Henkin, “Kosovo and the Law of Humanitarian Intervention” in id., p.824; P. Malanczuk, Humanitarian Intervention and the Legitimacy of the Use of Force 91993); B. Simma, “NATO, the UN and the Use of Force in 10
5、 EJIL (1999), p. 1; and (semi) official reports by inter alia the Danish Institute of International Affairs, Humanitarian Intervention: Legal and Political Aspects (1999); Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Legal Advisory Committee on International Law and the Advisory Council on International
6、 Affairs (AIV)(AVV), Humanitarian Intervention (April 2001), Independent International Commission on Kosovo: The Kosovo Report (2001). The recurring nature of the discussion reflects not only the unfortunate reality that large scale violations of human rights form a systemic problem or which the int
7、ernational community has no instant solution. It also reflects the fact that humanitarian intervention is a highly complex subject which can, and to at least some extent must be approached in a way which takes account of political, ethical and legal considerations.This is illustrated by the above-me
8、ntioned example of the intervention by NATO in Kosovo. The fact that it was carried out without a specific mandate from the UN Security Council was an important, but by no means the only consideration relating to the way the intervention was viewed and assessed by the international community. An ana
9、lysis which only took account of whether or not a specific case of humanitarian intervention was carried out with a UN mandate would ignore important elements of the overall problem and would contain a large measure of artificiality. This is completely clear from the sources referred to in the previ
10、ous note. See additionally, R. Falk, “ Kosovo, World Order and the Future of International Law” in 93 AJIL (1999), p. 847 at 852-53. On the other hand, it is impossible to ignore the legal dimension of any decision to utilize force, including in relation to humanitarian intervention, without potenti
11、ally undermining the international system, risking the possibility of diplomatic isolation for a given military operation. This in turn is illustrated by the example of the invasion and occupation of Iraq by the United States and a handful of its closest allies; which while not primarily based upon
12、the doctrine of humanitarian intervention, does show the pitfalls of military intervention without a clear and generally accepted legal basis. It makes a great deal of difference whether a given military intervention has a clear legal basis, or is widely perceived as being illegal, or perhaps is see
13、n as falling somewhere in between these two extremes.In order to provide an indication of the present legal status of humanitarian intervention, we will first attempt to provide a clear definition of what is meant by the term, and indicate its place within the contemporary legal framework regulating
14、 the use of force. This will be followed by a short historical excursion to examine the possible relevance of the natural law concept of just war (bellum justum) and of nineteenth century State practice to the current debate concerning the legality and acceptability of humanitarian intervention, sin
15、ce both of those precedents are often referred to in one way or another in the context of the current debate. Finally we will advance a set of criteria which take account of the political and ethical dimension of humanitarian intervention within a legal context. We will conclude by attempting to ill
16、ustrate how political and ethical considerations, alongside legal ones can function as mitigating or exonerating factors in relation to humanitarian intervention and its overall status within the contemporary legal system.2.Humanitarian Intervention and Contemporary International Law2.1Definition of
17、 Humanitarian InterventionThere are few topics within public international law which are the subject of so much controversy and disagreement and for which there are so many conflicting definitions as humanitarian intervention. See in addition to the sources referred to in nn. 2 and 3 supra inter ali
18、a, I. Brownlie, “ Humanitarian Intervention” in J.N. Moore (ed.) Law and Civil War in the Modern World (1974), p. 217 et seq. and R. Lillich, “ Humanitarian Intervention: A Reply to Ian Brownlie and a Plea for Constructive Alternatives in id. p. 229 et seq. for a “classical” polemic on the topic. A
19、different primarily non-legal perspective and approach to the subject is given by O. Ramsbotham and T. Woodhouse in Humanitarian Intervention in Contemporary Conflict (1996). Sometimes it is defined as very broadly so as to include various forms of diplomatic activity and humanitarian assistance alo
20、ngside different types of military activity, ranging from UN peacekeeping missions with a humanitarian objective to full-scale warfare (ostensibly) on behalf of an entire population, or a population group. This is the approach taken by Ramsbotham and Woodhouse, op. cit, supra n. 4, who argue that th
21、e classic definition of humanitarian intervention is inadequate and instead propose a broad definition and concept of humanitarian intervention; see in this regard pp. 106-113 in particular. Other definitions limit it to military activity undertaken by the international community as a whole, by a re
22、gional organization or by an individual State or group of States in situations whereby fundamental human rights of a population or minority group are severely threatened. This is the approach taken in inter alia, the Report by the Legal Advisory Committee to the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affai
23、rs referred to in n. 2 supra, at pp. 6-7.The classic definition of humanitarian intervention is even narrower in scope and only includes military activity by one or more States to put an end to widespread and flagrant violations of fundamental human rights, in particular the right to life, without a
24、ny form of authorization or consent from the government of the State where the intervention takes place. This is the definition used by inter alia W. Verwey, “Humanitarian Intervention” in A. Cassese (ed.) The Current Legal Regulation of the Use of Force (1986) p. 57 et seq. at p. 59. this definitio
25、n is based in turn on the classic definition of intervention in a general sense which was described as “dictatorial interference” by L. Oppenheim, “Dictatorial Interference” in this context signifies forcible action against the will of the target State without any degree of authorization. See L. Opp
26、enheim, International Law, 3rd Edition (1920) p. 220. It should be borne in mind that the choice of a particular definition has much more than mere semantic or academic significance. The definition chosen will inevitably have great importance for determining the existence and nature of a possible le
27、gal basis for such an intervention.Only military activity falls within the scope of prohibition of the use of force Article 2(4) of the UN Charter contains the prohibition of the use of force under contemporary international law and provides that: “All Members shall refrain from the threat or use of
28、 force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations”, while diplomatic pressure, other types of non-military sanctions and humanitarian assistance is governed by other rules and principles of int
29、ernational law. Even if one limits the definition to military activity, it is necessary to make a clear distinction between activity which has the consent of the government of the State where the military activity is conducted and situations where no such consent or authorization is given, or where
30、it meets with active resistance. In the first type of situation, there is no question of intervention in a legal sense and no violation of sovereignty of occurs See n. 7 supra. The granting of consent by the State concerned not only removed the qualification as “intervention” from the action, but al
31、so provides it with a legal basis. See Article 29 of the Draft Articles on State Responsibility (Draft Articles ICC 1996, amended in 1998. Consent appears in Article 20 of the Final Version adopted by the ICC in 2001. See J. Crawford, The International Law Commissions Articles on State Responsibilit
32、y: Introduction, Text and Commentaries (2002) p. 163, while in the second there is clearly a situation of intervention, which will require some form of legal justification.Another equally fundamental distinction is that between interventions which are carried out with a clear authorization by the Se
33、curity Council; either to a (coalition of) State(s) under Chapter VIII of the Charter; and interventions which are carried out without any such authorization, either by a State, or by a regional organization. Although a UN authorized military intervention which is carried out without the consent of
34、the target State is clearly a form of “intervention”, it is one which has a generally recognized legal basis and as such will possess a presumption of legality. See inter alia Articles 1, 24, 39 and 42 UN Charter.The UN Charter provides the Security Council with far-reaching powers in the maintenanc
35、e of international peace and security and a wide degree of discretion in the determination of whether a given situation constitutes a threat to or a breach of the peace. The practice of the Security Council since the end of the Cold War clearly shows that the Council is prepared to utilize its enfor
36、cement powers in response to humanitarian crises and serious violations of human rights, provided the political will to act is present and the interests of the major powers and regional groups within the UN coincide sufficiently to ensure that they will at least not actively oppose initiatives withi
37、n the Council to provide authorization for military action. Examples of such UN mandated collective intervention include Somalia (SC Res. 794, 1992), Rwanda (SC Res. 929, 1994) and Haiti (SC Res. 940, 1994). For a general analysis of the evolution of UN practice in this respect see inter alia J. May
38、all (ed.) The New Interventionism 1991-1994: United Nations experience in Cambodia, former Yugoslavia and Somalia (1996).The non-intervention principle contained in Article 2(7) of the Charter does not apply to enforcement measures taken by the Council, or with the Councils authorization. Such inter
39、vention is often referred to as “collective humanitarian intervention” to distinguish it from situations in which no such authorization by the Security Council is forthcoming. Only in situations in which the Council is unwilling or unable to provide such authorization, is there a need to justify the
40、 military intervention on the basis of a separate legal doctrine of “humanitarian intervention”. A final distinction should be made to avoid confusion. A significant number of States and numerous authors take the position that military intervention which is aimed at protecting or evacuating the nati
41、onals of the intervening State has a basis in the right of self-defense. A related theory is that action undertaken by a State to rescue its national from a grave threat to their lives or physical safety has its basis in a customary right of “rescue of nationals” which is separate from, but related
42、to the right of self-defense. See in this respect D.W. Bonett, “The Use of Force for the Protection of Nationals Abroad” in A. Cassese op. cit. n. 7 supra, p. 39 et seq. who places protection of nationals within the context of the right of self-defense. In contrast, N. Ronzitti rejects this position
43、 and argues instead that there is a(n) (emerging) rule of customary law which provides for the possibility of forcible evacuation of nationals in Rescuing Nationals Abroad Through Military Coercion and Intervention on Grounds of Humanity (1986). There is considerable controversy concerning the exist
44、ence and scope of such a right, although on balance the arguments for accepting a limited right of protection of nationals within the scope of the right of self-defense seem to this author to be the most persuasive. In this respect, the views of the late Sir Humphrey Waldock still strike this author
45、 as the most persuasive on this topic over half a century since they were first published. See C.H.M. Waldock, “The Regulation of the Use of Force by Individual States in International Law” in 81 RCADI Hague Receuil) (1952), p. 451 at 467. However, be that as it may, and irrespective of whether one
46、agrees or not, there are good reasons to distinguish such a right from a broader right of humanitarian intervention in order to avoid confusion. Keeping such a distinction as to what is meant by the term “humanitarian intervention” and further avoid the application of the concept of self-defense to
47、situations where it would be wholly inapplicable, such as military intervention on behalf of a threatened population to protect it from depredations by its own government, or other groups within the State where the intervention takes place.Consequently, the “classic” definition of humanitarian inter
48、vention is clearer and more precise than definitions which are broader in scope or can have other legal justifications, such as collective security or self-defense. As such humanitarian intervention is defined for the purposes of this article as: military activity by one or more States irrespective
49、of whether they are part of a military alliance or regional organization aimed at putting an end to or protecting persons not of its (their) nationality who are subjected to serious violations of fundamental human rights, in particular the right to life, without the consent of the target State and without any form of authorization by the UN Security Council.2.2The Legal Status of Humanitarian InterventionThe choice for the abovementioned classic definition of humanitarian intervention signifies that the legal
