《Impacts of plastic debris on Australian marine wildlife.doc》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《Impacts of plastic debris on Australian marine wildlife.doc（83页珍藏版）》请在三一办公上搜索。
1、IMPACTS OF PLASTIC DEBRIS ON AUSTRALIAN MARINE WILDLIFEFINAL REPORTC&R Consulting for The Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts Date: 19th June 2009IMPORTANT NOTEThe views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those o
2、f the Australian Government or the Minister for the Environment, Heritage and the Arts or the Minister for Climate Change and Water.While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the Commonwealth does not accept responsibility for the a
3、ccuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.No part of this document may be reproduced without written permission from the Clients and C&R Co
4、nsulting Pty Ltd. If this report is to form part of a larger study, or is a response to a “Request for Additional Information” from a Compliance Agency, this report must be included as an Appendix within the full report without any additions, deletions or amendments.C&R Consulting Pty Ltd do not acc
5、ept any responsibility in relation to any financial and/or business decisions made for any other property or development other than that for which this information has been provided. _Dr Chris CuffDirector23 June 2009_Date_Dr Cecily RasmussenDirector23 June 2009_DateAuthor: Daniela M. Ceccarelli, C&
6、R ConsultingMapping: Ben Cuff, C&R ConsultingInternal Review: Dr Cecily Rasmussen & Lyndall Harvey, C&R ConsultingFront Cover Photo: Marine Turtles entangled in derelict fishing net. Torres Strait Regional Authority. Supplied by Mark Read, GBRMPAPreferred Citation: Ceccarelli, D. M. 2009. Impacts of
7、 plastic debris on Australian marine wildlife. Report by C&R Consulting for the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts.SUMMARY OF RELEVANT INFORMATIONProject TitleImpacts of plastic debris on Australian marine wildlifeLocationAll Australian watersProject PurposeReview available
8、records on interactions between plastic debris and Australian marine wildlifeNominated RepresentativeLorraine HitchAgencyDEWHAPostal AddressGPO Box 787Canberra ACT 2601Telephone02 6274 1592Fax:02 6274 2455EmailLorraine.Hitchenvironment.gov.auSurvey Undertaken by:C&R Consulting - Dr. Daniela Ceccarel
9、li Acknowledgements:See Acknowledgements Section1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARYPlastic debris is a pervasive problem throughout the worlds oceans, and various governments worldwide have officially recognised the importance of managing this issue. In response, efforts to define, monitor and reduce the problem o
10、f plastic debris in the sea are increasing, especially as it poses significant risks to protected species. This study is a first attempt at compiling available data on interactions between plastic debris and marine wildlife in Australian waters. The geographic extent of the study included all Austra
11、lian waters, including offshore and sub-Antarctic islands and Australian Antarctic Territories. The types of impacts from plastic debris include primarily entanglement and ingestions. This report provides an indication of the frequency, geographic extent, general magnitude and other details of these
12、 interactions and presents a summary of the impacts of plastic debris (including lost or discarded fishing equipment) on Australian marine wildlife. The earliest available record of these impacts was from 1974, and the most recent records were from June of 2008.This study was prepared with informati
13、on obtained from available publications, raw data and database extracts, media reports and anecdotal evidence wherever available. However, there is a paucity of information in Australia and an absence of any national, standardised database, data recording or reporting system that allows a comprehens
14、ive assessment of the interactions between plastic debris and marine wildlife. As a consequence, the magnitude of impacts of plastic debris on marine wildlife is difficult to determine.Available information indicates that at least 77 species of marine wildlife found in Australian waters have been im
15、pacted by entanglement in, or ingestion of, plastic debris during the last three and a half decades (1974-2008). The affected species include six species of marine turtles, 12 species of cetaceans, at least 34 species of seabirds, dugongs, six species of pinnipeds, at least 10 species of sharks and
16、rays, and at least eight other species groups. Most records of impacts of plastic debris on wildlife relate to entanglement, rather than ingestion. However, the rate of ingestion of plastic debris by marine wildlife is difficult to assess as not all dead animals are necropsied or ingested plastic de
17、bris may not be recorded where it is not considered as the primary cause of death. Species dominating existing entanglement and ingestion records are turtles and humpback whales. Australian pelicans and a number of cormorant species are also frequently reported. The distribution of records of wildli
18、fe impacted by plastic debris in Australian waters reflects survey efforts. For example, some of the highest numbers of records come from coastal areas of north eastern Arnhem Land and south eastern Queensland where long-term surveys and regular beach clean-up activities are in place. Cetacean recor
19、ds are the most uniformly distributed, while records of pinnipeds and dugongs reflect the distribution of these species and occur primarily along southern Australia, and eastern Queensland, respectively. Seabird records tend to be concentrated around large urban centres, especially where zoos or wil
20、dlife rescue organisations receive dead and injured birds and maintain records, and on offshore islands where plastic ingestion by particular seabird species has been studied. Geographic areas where there are few, if any, records of wildlife impacted by plastic debris include the north western coast
21、line of Western Australia, the Great Australian Bight, eastern Cape York, and offshore waters. Many animals that feed in offshore waters may return to coastal waters, where they are subsequently recorded. The absence of records for these areas is more likely to reflect an absence of regular observat
22、ions and monitoring, not an absence of interactions occurring there.Derelict fishing nets dominate the types of plastic debris observed entangling wildlife. A variety of plastic items are recorded as impacting marine species through ingestion. The most common items in the ingestion records are synth
23、etic fishing line and hooks (especially in seabirds). The patterns of reports of entanglement in and ingestion of plastic debris by wildlife in Australian waters are likely to be influenced by factors such as the size and distribution of populations, foraging areas, migration patterns, diets, proxim
24、ity of species to urban centres, changes in fisheries equipment and practices, weather patterns, and ocean currents, as well as the frequency of monitoring and/or observation of wildlife. While this study focuses on apparent trends in available data, it is beyond the scope of this project to draw co
25、nclusions about the causes of or influences on these trends by any of the factors outlined above.To improve information on the impacts of plastic debris on marine wildlife, a national database needs to be established and a nationally consistent, systematic approach to monitoring and the recording of
26、 information needs to be implemented. Key future research priorities include: Determining the necessary statistical analyses required to develop a more accurate estimate of the magnitude of the impact of plastic debris on marine wildlife. Facilitating the collection of more necropsy data specificall
27、y aimed at detecting ingested plastic debris. Devise species-specific methods aimed to increase the probability of detecting ingested plastic (e.g. Francis 2007). Developing a method to assess cryptic mortality (unrecorded or unknown deaths) caused by impacts of plastic debris. Analysing climatic an
28、d oceanographic information to assist in detecting seasonal patterns in the impacts of plastic debris on marine wildlife. Devising a monitoring program, for feeding information into the national database from geographic locations currently devoid of data. Recommendations are given for the implementa
29、tion of such a monitoring program.TABLE OF CONTENTS1.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY42.INTRODUCTION83.METHODS103.1Approach103.2Information Sources103.3Limitations and Assumptions184.RESULTS194.1Overview: Plastic Debris in Australian Waters194.2Species Affected in Australia194.3Types of Plastic Debris Affecting Au
30、stralian Marine Wildlife264.4Marine Turtles294.4.1Affected Marine Turtle Species294.4.2Dynamics and Distribution of Affected Marine Turtles314.4.3Types of Plastic Debris Impacting Marine Turtles344.5Cetaceans364.5.1Affected Cetacean Species364.5.2Temporal Patterns and Distribution of Affected Cetace
31、ans384.5.3Types of Plastic Debris Affecting Cetaceans414.6Seabirds434.6.1Affected Seabird Species434.6.2Temporal Pattern and Distribution of Affected Seabird Species464.6.3Types of Plastic Debris Affecting Seabirds494.7Dugongs524.7.1Temporal Dynamics and Distribution of Affected Dugongs524.7.2Types
32、of Plastic Debris Affecting Dugongs544.8Pinnipeds564.8.1Affected Pinniped Species564.8.2Temporal Dynamics and Distribution of Affected Pinnipeds574.8.3Types of Plastic Debris Affecting Pinnipeds594.9Other Species614.9.1Other Species Affected by Plastic Debris614.9.2Distribution of Impacted Species62
33、4.9.3Types of Plastic Debris Affecting Other Species635.DISCUSSION645.1Marine Turtles655.2Cetaceans665.3Seabirds665.4Dugongs685.5Pinnipeds685.6Other Species696.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS706.1Conclusions706.2Recommendations707.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS738.PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS769.REFERENCES77LIST OF FI
34、GURESFigure 1.Distribution of known records.26Figure 2.Green turtle drowned in fish trap29Figure 3.Known records of turtles30Figure 4.Records of turtle species30Figure 5.Monthly variation in available records of marine turtle strandings31Figure 6.Annual trends in available records of marine turtle e
35、ntanglements32Figure 7.Distribution of known records of marine turtle entanglement33Figure 8.Known records of marine turtle entanglement, ingestion, and unspecified35Figure 9.Unidentified dolphin entangled in fishing line36Figure 10.Available records of cetaceans36Figure 11.Available records of ceta
36、cean species38Figure 12.Monthly variation in available records of cetaceans39Figure 13.Annual trends in available records of cetaceans40Figure 14.Distribution of known records of cetaceans41Figure 15.Known types of plastic debris impacting cetaceans42Figure 16.Hoary-headed grebe entangled in mesh ne
37、tting43Figure 17.Available records of seabirds44Figure 18 Available records of seabirds44Figure 19.Monthly variation in available records of seabirds47Figure 20.Annual trends in available records of seabirds47Figure 21.Available records of seabirds48Figure 22.Known records of seabirds impacted by fi
38、shing lines and hooks49Figure 23.Known plastic debris types (including derelict fishing gear)50Figure 24.Known fishing gear types (where active or derelict status is unknown)51Figure 25.Records of dugongs52Figure 26.Monthly variation in available records of dugongs53Figure 27.Annual trends in availa
39、ble records of dugongs53Figure 28.Known records of dugongs54Figure 29.Plastic impacting dugongs55Figure 30.Australian fur seal with rope neck collar56Figure 31.Known records of pinnipeds57Figure 32.Monthly variation in available records of pinnipeds58Figure 33.Annual trends in available records of i
40、nteractions58Figure 34.Distribution of known records of pinnipeds59Figure 35.Known types of plastic impacting pinnipeds60Figure 36.Known records of other species62LIST OF TABLESTable 1.Known sources of data on wildlife impacted by plastic debris12Table 2.Summary of species impacted by plastic debris
41、 in Australian waters.21Table 3.Summary of known plastic types impacting marine wildlife27Table 4.Known species of seabirds affected by plastic debris and fishing gear45Table 5.Known records of sharks, rays and other animals61Table 6.Known types of plastic debris impacting other species632. INTRODUC
42、TIONThis study focuses on the interactions between plastic debris and marine wildlife, but does not consider invertebrates, issues such as the spreading of wildlife through rafting on plastic debris (Barnes and Fraser 2003) or the smothering effects of plastic debris on benthic wildlife (Katsanevaki
43、s et al. 2007). This study represents a first attempt to determine what data are available on interactions between plastic debris and marine wildlife in Australian waters, and to provide an indication of the frequency, geographic extent, general magnitude and other details of the available records o
44、f these interactions.The objectives of this study are to identify: Known interactions between marine wildlife and plastic debris (including numbers of animals, geographic location, temporal extent of records, types of plastic debris and time of interaction); Gaps in knowledge of interactions between
45、 marine wildlife and plastic debris; and Future research priorities to progress understanding and management of the impact of plastic debris on marine wildlife.Plastic debris is recognised as a pervasive problem throughout the worlds oceans. It is estimated that seven billion tonnes of plastic litte
46、r enter the ocean every year (Faris and Hart 1995). Plastic litter is often reported to make up the highest proportion of this litter, and this is of particular concern due to its durability and its potential to injure or kill marine wildlife (Andrady 2000). The disposal of plastic litter into the o
47、cean is prohibited under Annex V of MARPOL MARPOL is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973; Annex V of this Convention provides for the Prevention of pollution by garbage from ships. Under Annex V of the Convention, garbage includes all kinds of food, domestic and operational waste, excluding fresh fish, generated during the normal operation of the vessel and liable to be disposed of continuously or periodically. An
