《Intercultural communication.doc》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《Intercultural communication.doc（20页珍藏版）》请在三一办公上搜索。
1、Intercultural CommunicationIn the Global WorldBUS272 Behaviour in OrganizationsSeung Woo Han (301002412)Gillian Epp (301083305)Eun Hoe Lee (301080043)Marsha Hasjim (301078803)Table of contentsTABLE OF CONTENTS1INTRODUCTION2POWER: HIERARCHICAL VS. DEMOCRATIC CULTURES3SOCIAL FRAMEWORK: HIGH-CONTEXT VS
2、. LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES5NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION7TIME: LINEAR, FLEXIBLE, OR CYCLICAL9ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION10CONCLUSION11APPENDIX A: TABLE I14APPENDIX B: TABLE II14APPENDIX C: TABLE III15APPENDIX D: TABLE IV15APPENDIX E: GRAPH I16APPENDIX F: GRAPH II17BIBLIOGRAPHY18IntroductionCommunication is the
3、process of creating and sharing information with one another. Rapid changes in technology, transportation and immigration are making the world into a small-intersected community, where understanding how different cultures communicate is extremely important. In order to achieve effective intercultura
4、l communication we have to understand how different cultures communicate.Communication styles differ by how power is distributed within an organization. There are essentially two types: hierarchical, and democratic. In a hierarchical structure the most power is held by the highest ranking individual
5、, where as in a democratic structure, power distribution is uniformed among the individuals. Edward T. Hall (1976) originated the classification of high-context versus low-context cultures, based on the amount of information that is implied versus stated directly in a communication message. In high-
6、context cultures, the meanings of the messages are found in the situation and in the relationships of the communicators, or are internalized in the communicators beliefs, values, and norms. In low-context cultures, less emphasis is placed on the context. Instead they rely on explicit verbal messages
7、. Understanding these differences is essential to accurately decoding the message.Communication specialists estimate that three-fourths of our communication is nonverbal and takes place through our behavior. Nonverbal cues serve as the markers of ones identities. The way people dress, the accent pat
8、tern, and the nonverbal way of gesturing, all deliver messages to others.A cultures perception of time can alter the message being communicated. In a culture that uses linear time, tasks are sequential. The focus is on the task to be completed within a certain framework. Cultures that view time as f
9、lexible are reluctant to strictly measure or control it. They value relationships over schedules. The focus is on the present. In cyclical time cultures, time manages life and humans must adjust to time. The cycle of life controls people and they must live in harmony with nature and subscribe to the
10、 repetitive patterns of life. Cultural concepts of time represent strong normative forces affecting the behaviours and cognitions of the communicators. The past decade has brought many advances in technology. These advances are affecting the way cultures communicate and do business. Nowadays, it is
11、not possible to study communication without considering an electronic communication.To examine intercultural communication, four countries from four continents have been selected: Canada, Brazil, Germany and Japan. The study of these differences and similarities in communication will help people to
12、work and socialize in the global world.Power: Hierarchical vs. Democratic CulturesNorth American businesses have relatively democratic organizational patterns, which allow a free flow of information. “No matter what their job descriptions, workers in more democratic cultures may consider themselves
13、colleagues with differing levels of responsibility.” (Sana ReynoldsDeborah, 2004) North American organizations do not distinguish people by ranks or jurisdiction and respect equality. Ideas, suggestions, and complaints are sent to anyone by anyone and both upward and downward directions are used wit
14、hin an organization.In Brazil, individualism is upheld by hardship in the economy, creating a social hierarchy that does not respect the rules of equality found in democratic frameworks, like that of Canada. Brazil is aristocratic in its culture and politics. People of high rank maintain an authorit
15、ative distance. In business decisions are made by the highest ranking individual. This steep hierarchy discourages input from those at lower levels to those at higher levels. Furthermore, information slows down as it moves up the levels of authority eventually reaching the decision maker who is over
16、loaded with information. On the way down, information moves quickly. Japan is also observed to have a hierarchical organizational structure. “The Japanese prefer a strict hierarchy in their organizations, and that promotion in Japanese government and businesses is usually based on seniority.” (Sana
17、ReynoldsDeborah, 2004)The Japanese cultures preference for a clearly defined hierarchy is closely related to the Confucian thought. Japanese believe that clarifying who is in charge is a good way to preserve harmony; therefore, organizational situations where there is a defined hierarchy are more co
18、mfortable. To those from Confucian cultures, losing facepersonal dignity, can be devastating and involves not only embarrassment but also profound shame. Furthermore, in a collectivistic cultureJapan, ones loss of face brings shame on the entire organization. Thus, knowing the lines of power and aut
19、hority by maintaining a clear hierarchy helps people keep their face. Confucian beliefs strictly define the duties and responsibilities of relationships that are inherently unequal. These cultures are comfortable with a clear hierarchy in business, government, religion, and family life.Germany respe
20、cts authority and hierarchical differences. Germans are autocrats, who prefer formal communication when conducting business. Autocratic leaders give order in a certain manner, which shows directness and straightforwardness. This is called The Eiffel Tower Culture as orders come from the top to the b
21、ottom. Brazil, Japan, and Germany prefer a hierarchical organizational structure because it avoids uncertainty. Power is ensured within the organization. However, this hierarchy can cause concealment and misrepresentation of information. In non-hierarchical culturesdemocratic cultures such as Canada
22、, everyone shares an equal amount of information and it flows without limits. This free flow of information can cause confusion throughout the organization. Therefore, the democratic communication structure requires further training of job responsibility to ensure effective communication.Social Fram
23、ework: High-Context vs. Low-Context CulturesCulture is distributed in two major groups: high-context and low-context. Canada is a low-context culture. Canadian managers rely heavily on memoranda, announcements, position papers, and other formal forms of communication to state their positions on issu
24、es. Canadian supervisors may hoard information in an attempt to make them look professional and as a way of persuading their employees to accept decisions and plans.Germany, like Canada is a low-context culture. Individualism reflects the philosophical meaning, which is having the sense of achieving
25、 ones goal in order to provide good for the community. Germany focuses on personal achievements. Truth and directness are important aspects in business. Criticism is not taken personally. Active appeal of thoughts, solve problems. Collectivistic cultures, such as Japan, are often high-context cultur
26、es. These cultures emphasize nonverbal communication and subtleness rather than being frank. High-context cultures are extremely polite, which fits with the indirect, subtle nature of interpersonal communication. Ambiguity and obscurity characterized conversations in a high-context culture. One purp
27、ose of this style of communication is to avoid threatening the face of ones conversation partner, thus bringing shame upon oneself. What is not said may be more important than what is said. Collectivism and interdependent self-construal in Japan promote the need for verbal circumspection, and verbal
28、 circumspection often promotes face preservation and relational harmony. Brazilians as well prefer high-context communication, rich in non-verbal cues, that takes place in person. They focus on personal relationships. In accordance with high-context communication, Maybe or I will try is understood a
29、s No in Brazilian culture. Brazil is a land of paradox, where reality is often not what it appears to be. There are distinct differences between classes and race. When communicating, Brazilians seek emotional connections with others.In high-context communication, the listener or interpreter of the m
30、essage is expected to read “between the lines,” to accurately infer the implicit intent of the verbal message, and to observe the nonverbal nuances and subtleties that encircle or “wrap” the verbal message. In contrast, low-context cultures read the message itself.Conflict is less common in high-con
31、text society than low-context. The emphasis is on the group instead of the individual, reducing interpersonal friction. As well an elaborate set of standards emphasize “obligations” over “rights”, what one owes to others rather than deservers for oneself. The value attached to harmony cultivates ski
32、ll in the use of ambiguity, circumlocution, euphemism, and silence in blunting incipient disputes. The ability to assimilate differences, to engineer consensus, is valued above a talent for argument in high-context cultures.Non-verbal CommunicationNon-verbal communication is important. It includes e
33、ye contact, facial expression, and gestures. North Americans use eye contact in one-to-one conversations, indicating interest and respect. Meanings of body gesture differ by culture. In North America, if a person nods by moving his head up and down, it means “yes”. The same gesture in Kuwait is unde
34、rstood as “no”.In Germany and North America, shaking hands at the beginning and the end of a business meeting is important. In addition to a handshake, Germans, bow and maintain strong eye contact when acknowledging associates.Brazilians, who are religious, emotional, and mystical people, think of t
35、he body as the sender of messages. Understanding non-verbal clues is essential to understanding what is being said. Personal space is not emphasized in Brazil. It is common for people engaged in conversation to stand less than a foot apart and it would be considered rude to take a step backwards.In
36、a Brazilian office people come in and out, and several conversations are carried on at once. People do not take turns speaking. One might interrupt conversation or speak simultaneously. This is not considered inappropriate. Brazilians also tend to linger in silence for long periods of time, a custom
37、 that makes Canadians uncomfortable.The value of talk versus silence in a conversation varies greatly depending on the culture. For instance, in comparison to European and Americans, Asians are much more taciturn, or reluctant to talk. An Asian is more likely to use indirect expression to convey an
38、intended meaning. Silence itself may be a very important message. For the Japanese, the silence between two utterances in a conversation belongs to the previous speaker, who indicates how long the silence should continue. The listener should show respect to the previous speakers wish for silence, es
39、pecially if the speaker is older or of higher status than the listener. (Barnlund.Dean, 1989)Unlike verbal communication, non-verbal communication is very unique among cultures. For effective intercultural communication, using approrpiate non-verbal communication is even more critical than just usin
40、g a fluent foreign language. Time: Linear, Flexible, or CyclicalIn Brazil, a flexible time culture, keeping a schedule is less important than human feelings. When relationships require attention, time becomes a subjective commodity that can be manipulated or stretched. Meetings are never rushed or c
41、ut short because of time constraints instead Brazilians live fully in the present. Canada is a linear, monochromic, time culture which view time as a precious commodity to be used, not wasted. Such cultures tend to think schedules are very important to their life because they permit planning and pre
42、vent uncertainty. These cultures also measures time in small units because they want their schedule to be more accurate. “Time is money,” “Dont waste time,” and “Use time wisely” are some expressions that are frequently spoken in linear cultures. Germans are very strict about time, thus, Germany is
43、also a linear time culture. A German expression, Uberpunktlich, demonstrates the attitude of being on time. Germans believe by managing time wisely, they will have a better outcome.Japanese culture lives in cyclical time. In Japan, planning is long term. Although Japanese people have a keen sense of
44、 the value of time and respect punctuality, this is dictated by politeness and will have little impact on the actual speed with which business is done. A liberal amount of time will be allotted to the repeated consideration of the details of a transaction and to the careful nurturing of personal rel
45、ationship. This makes Japanese products to be a flawless and high-quality.Electronic CommunicationCanadas technology has improved in parallel with the United States. The role of electronic communication in Canada has also grown significantly. Canadian organizations use teleconferencing, which allows
46、 them to deliberate simultaneously, from anywhere, using telephone or e-mail group communications software. Electronic data interchange is a way for organization to exchange standard business transaction documents using direct computer-to-computer networks. Video conferencing is an alternative to tr
47、avel.Electronic communication is very common in Japan. Japan is one of the worlds most electronically connected information societies. They lead in rankings of: the Internet use, the Internet penetration, broadband penetration, mobile phone ownership, 3G mobile telecoms, Wi-Fi hotspots and Wi-Bro (M
48、obile Wi-Max) coverage. The economy from television to advertising to banking to the automobile sector has embraced wireless broadband connectivity offering everything from digital broadcast TV to handhelds and cars, to over half of Japan using payment systems on their mobile phones. Germany also re
49、lies heavily on electronic communication. Increased productivity and efficiency are derived from modern communication tools. Germany is constantly developing innovations in their world of electronic communication. The German government plans to wiretap all electronic communications such as mobile, emails, and Internet traffic. Such innovation shows how important and valuable electronic c
