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1、Policy dimensions of human resource management in the tourism and hospitality industriesTom Baum, Vanessa Amoah, Sheryl SpivackTom Baum, The Scottish Hotel School, The University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UKVanessa Amoah, Department of Management, University of Buckingham, Buckingham, UKSheryl Spivac
2、k, Institute of International Tourism Studies, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USAAbstractDevelops the view that human resource management is a central strategic and operational concern within the tourism and hospitality industries, with implications for quality and market position
3、ing of tourism at local, regional and national levels. Suggests that all stakeholders, be they public or private sector, visitor or host community, would benefit from a close integration of human resource, labour market and education policies. Presents two studies which substantiate this view: one w
4、hich generally examines policies for human resource development, and another which addresses the policy issues involved.Article type: Wholly Theoretical.Keywords: Hospitality Industry, Human Resource Management, Policy, Strategy, Tourism, Training.Content Indicators: Research Implications* Practice
5、Implications* Originality* Readability*International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality ManagementVolume 9 Number 5/6 1997 pp. 221-229Copyright MCB University Press ISSN 0959-6119IntroductionThe delivery of quality products and services, within international tourism and hospitality, reflects an inc
6、reasing focus on intangibles and the role of what can be styled the human factor. Companies struggle to create clear distinction and consumer recognition of added value on the basis of physical product differentiation (Balmer and Baum, 1993) except within a relatively limited band of the market. Air
7、line brand relaunches (new first- and business-class products) and the executive floor products, within the hotel sector, represent a small proportion of the global market and trends in this direction are counter-balanced by the growing strength of budget or economy products (hotels and no-frills ai
8、rlines) in Europe and North America, catering for both the leisure and business customer. There is considerable evidence to support the notion that there has been a merging of the tourism experience, in physical product terms, across the range of designated quality levels. The introduction of Busine
9、ss First products by airlines offers consumers what is claimed to be a first-class environment for business-class price, while budget to mid-range hotel rooms offer a range of facilities which are not significantly different from some products in the four-star range. This trend is one which has, in
10、part, created the need to focus on service delivery as an alternative differentiator in the marketplace. The Marriott empowerment series of advertisements is a good example of recognition of this focus by a major hospitality corporation.A people focus, within tourism and hospitality, is by no means
11、new and successful organizations such as Disney, British Airways, Singapore Airlines, Marriott and Ritz Carlton have developed strong reputations for their recognition of the role which their staff play in meeting customer expectations within their sector. As a consequence, this is an area which has
12、 been studied and analysed in considerable depth, and the literature represents a significant collection of empirical research, good practice case-studies and rather polemical how to wow the customer pieces. The focus of such work is at the level of the firm and much of it builds on the work of majo
13、r corporations such as those identified above. Best practice, in the area, appears to recognize that quality service delivery is not the outcome of an isolated service enhancement training programme, but has to do with change in organizational culture from top down and is a complex process which imp
14、acts on all areas of the organization and its systems (Mahesh, 1994). It is also a process which is rather more commonly taken aboard within the context of larger organizations. Small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which have the advantage of simple internal communication systems, face other ch
15、allenges reflective of their resource structures, expertise and nature of their workforce.There is little doubt that consumer experience of human value added through service is varied within and between the hospitality sectors of most countries. In part, this is a reflection of the eclectic nature o
16、f customer expectations which may demand very different things from the same service delivery situation. It is also a factor of the number of human interactions (moments of truth) which most customers experience within any one hospitality purchase - these may or may not be within the one organizatio
17、n and thus the ability to control the customers experience may not lie within the organization, which suffers through lost business. In many respects, a customers assessment of hospitality will be based on the total destination experience.This article develops the argument that human resource manage
18、ment is more than a strategic and operational concern for companies competing within the hospitality marketplace. It considers human resource management as a strategic dimension within the wider enhancement of quality and market positioning of tourism at the level of organizations, specific destinat
19、ions, regions within countries or whole nations. The main thesis advanced is that the tourism and hospitality industry, from the perspective of all its stakeholders (public sector, private sector, visitors and host community), benefits from the close integration of human resource, labour market and
20、education policies, with those policies relating to, and impacting on, the tourism and hospitality sector. This thesis is developed by reporting key findings from two research projects which address aspects of the relationship between these two areas of policy. The first is concerned with the identi
21、fication of key future policy priorities for human resource development in tourism and hospitality, while the second addresses the structures and policy formulation environment necessary for creation of effective linkages between tourism and hospitality, on the one hand, and education, training and
22、development on the other.Human resource policy issues in tourism and hospitalityThe tourism and hospitality sector, in all locations, has a close relationship with the labour market environment from which it draws its skills and consequently depends on its workforce for the delivery of service and p
23、roduct standards to meet existing and anticipated demand from its visitor marketplace. This relationship is, on the one hand, one of dependency in that the make-up of the local workforce (or that which can be introduced into the local environment) has a direct influence on the standards and characte
24、r of the tourist offering which can be prepared and presented to visitors - if local art and craft skills are not developed within the education system or at community level, it will not be possible to offer this dimension to visitors. On the other hand, tourism and hospitality, for many communities
25、, provides a major and growing sector of the economy and, with it, employment opportunities which other traditional and declining sectors of the economy may not provide. This is true in an industrial, urban context where cities such as Glasgow (now the second most visited urban centre in the UK) hav
26、e developed tourism in the wake of the decline of its traditional heavy industrial sector. It is an equally valid scenario in locations where the exploitation of natural resources no longer provides the same level of employment opportunity as it did in the past - the decline of the North Atlantic fi
27、shery has seen island locations, such as the Faroes, Iceland, Greenland and Newfoundland, focus on tourism as part of wider economic diversification strategies. As one of the studies reported in this article illustrates, the two-way relationship between tourism and hospitality, and human resource de
28、velopment and management is not always recognized in a holistic and policy-focused manner by public or private sector concerns.Writing in 1993, Baum identified a number of what were described as universal themes: issues which literature and practical experience identified as the major human resource
29、 concerns faced by tourism and hospitality at both a practical, operational level and in the context of wider strategic and policy-oriented discussion. These were: Demography and the shrinking employment pool resulting in labour and specific skills shortages. This is primarily a developed country ph
30、enomenon found in Western Europe, North America and tiger economy countries of the Far East. However, labour shortage is also a concern elsewhere when it is recognized that the specific skills which tourism demands (technical, cultural, communications) may be in short supply within many, less develo
31、ped destination areas (see Baum, 1996). Demographic and other forms of structural change within the labour market demand responses which take tourism recruitment beyond its traditional youth pool into consideration of mature worker alternatives (those returning to work; seeking a career change; reti
32、rees) and this, in turn, has major implications for relative remuneration, working conditions, employment security and related issues. For many sub-sectors in tourism and hospitality, and in most developed countries, the negative employment image of the sector is a major issue and barrier to the rec
33、ruitment and retention of quality and well educated employees (Choy, 1995). Wood (1995) argues that both industry employees and wider society view hotel and catering labour as relatively low status, mainly because of the personal service nature of the work involved. This poor image is the result of
34、a cocktail of historic and contemporary factors - the origin of hospitality work within domestic service and its consequent associations with servility; links, in some countries, between hospitality employment and colonial legacy; widespread use of expatriate labour in many developing countries, cre
35、ating the perception that the sector is one offering only limited opportunity for promotion and progression; widespread exposure to work in the sector as a first working experience, resulting in generalized assessment based on limited exposure (see Baum, 1995); and the reality of anti-social working
36、 conditions and casualized remuneration (see below). In some respects, the negatively-held perceptions are not wholly justified by the reality of work for major airlines, international hotel groups, theme parks or within heritage organizations. In other regards, the perceptions are a mirror of the r
37、eality of work within an industrial sector dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and the impact of irregular demand. The effect of these perceptions is to impose a barrier to employment and employment choice among school and college leavers, parents and career guidance teachers whic
38、h has been very difficult to counter. However, the situation, in some developing countries, is rather different in that international tourism offers a high status and secure employment environment when compared to alternatives in both the primary and manufacturing sectors. In some contexts, cultural
39、 and traditional perceptions may also militate against the recruitment of the best able and qualified recruits into the tourism and hospitality sector. Religious barriers, for example, may exclude some groups from participation, notably women. As already indicated, the rewards and benefits structure
40、 of the tourism and hospitality industries can act as a barrier to the recruitment and retention of quality employees. This is a concern of particular focus within hospitality (see Wood, 1997) but perceptions regarding working conditions, hours and pay extend more generally across the tourism-relate
41、d service sector. There is a clear and unavoidable reality, within tourism and hospitality, that the demand cycle is anti-social and falls out with normal nine-to-five working parameters. Aircraft fly at night, hotel guests expect services at weekends and theme parks reach peak demand during public
42、holidays. In terms of remuneration, the sector faces challenges in common with other labour-intensive service areas and in many countries has seen pressures for increased productivity alongside deskilling in many areas of work. At a policy level, the sector is influenced greatly by legislative inter
43、vention, for example European initiatives with respect to minimum wage levels, duration of the working week and unsociable working times. Notwithstanding national and sub-sectoral diversity within tourism and hospitality, a combination of reality and perceptions gives an overall negative gloss to th
44、e image of many areas of the industry. As we have already suggested, this acts as a major barrier to the recruitment of quality personnel into work in the area. Many entrants to work in the sector do so with expectations of impermanence - this reflects reality in terms of the demand cycle (seasonali
45、ty and fluctuations as a result of instability within the business cycle in general) whereby longer-term and sustained opportunities are not available to those who take employment in hotels, as resort couriers or ski instructors. It is also reflective of short-termism within many tourism and hospita
46、lity businesses which may be unwilling to seek long-term commitment in return for reciprocal long-term investment in the recruit. As a consequence, many entrants to the sector do so with assumptions of impermanence - this is work to be undertaken on the way to somewhere else, a first exposure to the
47、 demands of the workforce but one to be shed when better opportunities arise elsewhere in the economy. Furthermore, as Riley (1996) shows, the sector is one of unconstrained access to most of its working positions and one which, therefore, benefits from unrestrained recruitment to most of its positi
48、ons but, conversely, also suffers because the skills it engenders in its workforce are in considerable demand within other areas of the service economy. Thus, while entry is open, so is the opportunity to move out elsewhere, both within tourism and hospitality, and to other employment areas. Staff t
49、urnover, therefore, can be very high, especially in tight and competitive labour markets, and is a major inhibitor for organizations and destinations seeking to achieve overall enhancement of service and product quality. A key issue, relating to recruitment, is that of specific skills shortages in key technical and some managerial areas. In part, this is an extension of the concerns addressed above - image, conditions, remuneration - but is also linked to a reluctance, within some industry sect
