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1、Rethinking Cross Cultural Management in a Globalizing Business World（书名）Anne-Marie Sderberg and Nigel HoldenInternational Journal of Cross Cultural Management 2002; 2; 103Cross cultural management is often regarded as a discipline of international management focusing on cultural encounters between w
2、hat are perceived as well-defined and homogeneous entities: the organization and the nation-state, and offering tools to handle cultural differences seen as sources of conflict or miscommunication. The authors argue that this approach is out of phase with the business world of today, with its transn
3、ational companies that face the challenges of the management of global knowledge networks and multicultural project teams, interacting and collaborating across boundaries using global communication technologies. The authors emphasize the need for an alternative approach which acknowledges the growin
4、g complexity of inter- and intra-organizational connections and identities, and offers theoretical concepts to think about organizations and multiple cultures in a globalizing business context.Cross cultural management is not a clearly demarcated discipline of managementYet to many scholars of manag
5、ement ,the term is already meaningful : it implies procedures and policies relating to the management of workforces with different cultural back-grounds ,and moderating the impact of cultural differences on the execution of management tasks. In this article our task will be ,in effect ,to give an ou
6、tline of some recent developments in organizations and their environment; changes that necessitate a redefinition of the subject of international management and a reformulation of the theoretical approach to international management. We claim that the understanding of the changes of the organization
7、al practices in a globalizing business world must include a new conceptualization of the management of transnational companies and of the international management as knowledge management of a workforce with different cultural backgrounds and identities. But first we need to examine the concept of cr
8、oss cultural management mainly as it has developed within international management as an academic discipline. This examination includes reflections on different theoretical concepts ofcultureused in the literature of cross cultural management,as well as different understandings of the functions ofcu
9、lture.Culture Perceived as a Communication Barrier or as a Resource for Organizational Learning Cross cultural management is often regarded as a methodology for handling cultural differences predominantly seen as sources of conflict,friction or miscommunication.No internationally operating firm,no m
10、anager however experienced in international business,can,it seems,ever escape from the possibility of misjudgement,misperception and mistakes in handling the complexity of cultural relationships with customers,suppliers and stakeholders.As we shall see,the international management literature is repl
11、ete with foreboding,representing cultural differences and even culture,plain and simple,as fiendish causes of this corporate undoing. It is also striking how author after author within the field of cross cultural management treats culture as a barrier to interaction and an all-pervading source of co
12、nfusion.For example,Hall(1995:21)claims that cultural differences are important enough to ruin a partnership that otherwise makes perfect economic sense(added emphasis).Likewise Hoecklin warns that cultural differences,if not properly handled,can lead tomanagement frustration,costly misunderstanding
13、s,and even business failures(Hoecklin,1995:ix).American writers H.N. Seelye and A.Seelye-James(1995)are even more emphatic.IN their words: Culture clash happens when people from two different cultures come into contact.Sometimes the clash begins before anyone has a chance to introduce you properly,b
14、efore you even open your mouth.Culture clash can lead to world-class fatigue or even clinical shock or depressionWhat are the dastardly symptoms of culture clash?Is it contagious?Is it terminal?(Seelye and Seelye-James,1995:1) The conviction that “cultural differences”can create such havoc in intern
15、ational business is of course not new:for some 40 years management writers have been assuming this.It is,however,novel-and disturbing-to find management authors like Seelye discussing culture clashes with such pathological overtones. Taking the academic contributions to international cross cultural
16、management as a whole it is clear that the literature reveals a preoccupation with three manifestly dominant core problem areas which have challenged international businesses since the 1950s and 1960s:the ethnocentrism,which binds and blinds;and the effects of culture shock,which combines “a sense o
17、f being subverted by foreigners”(Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars,1993.2)and a reeling against the inexplicable,the confounding press of Adlers(1991:75)subconscious cultural blinders. We claim that this model can be seen to represent the principal subject matter of international cross cultural managem
18、ent as it has evolved in the management literature during the last 40 years.This model also makes it clear why professional intercultural training has been characterized as “the culture-shock prevention industry”。The writers concerned thus tend to treat culture as a factor negatively impacting on fi
19、rmsinternational operations,and they stress that its influence must be anticipated,controlled or limited. However,not all authors see it that way.There are also those who regard culture as a source of competitive advantage and they will emphasize the importance of releasing cultural synergies at the
20、 interfaces where knowledge，values and experience are transferred.But,either way,culture and its consequences must be taken into account,and this,by general consent,is no easy task.The challenge,as identified by Schneider and Barsoux(1997:156)，lies in “treating diversity as a resource rather than a
21、threat that is essential for responding to the demands of a global market economy,for reaping the full benefits of cross-border alliances,and for enhancing organizational learning”. Some scholars thus argue that the judicious handling of cultural differences can lead to competitive advantage and eve
22、n organizational health(Dupriez and Simons,2000;Harris and Moran,1979;Hoecklin,1995;Morosini,1998;Soderberg et al.,2000；Viney,1997).Hoecklin(1995:15)notes: To think about cultural differences as a source of competitive advantage,there must be a shift in assumptions about the impact of cultural diffe
23、rencesCulture should not simply be seen as an obstacle to doing business across cultures.It can provide tangible benefits and can be used competitively. Dupriez(2000:91)notes that firms that are able to draw on the diverse experience of their multicultural workforce can achieve greater decentralizat
24、ion and empowerment at the local level.But such robust conviction appears to be relatively rare. For their part,Morosini(1998)and Gertsen and Soderberg(2000),who have carried out empirical studies of the impact of cultural differences in post-merger integration processes,contend that internal discus
25、sions and comparisons of management styles and practices may serve a positive purpose.They argue that managers and employees involved in international mergers and acquisitions are often forced to reflect on their cultural identifications and the organizational practices with those emanating from the
26、 new business context can contribute to new insights from “the other side”,and gradually cultural identifications with the new merged organization may emerge.Culture as Essence General texts on international management and international organizational behaviour which explicitly address cross cultura
27、l issues devote a good deal of space to a definition of the termculture.But, as literature reviews by Adler and Bartholomew(1992)and Darlington(1996)make clear,this literature is very wide-ranging in its approaches and in the dimensions used by researchers.It is,however,our overwhelming impression t
28、hat the international,cross cultural management literature,in contrast to the literature on organizational cultures,is not so much devoted to a discussion of and reflection on the theoretical assumptions embedded in a certain concept of culture.In international,cross cultural management literature,c
29、ulture is more seen as an area of interest,referring to somethingsoft,human,unquantifiable,difficult to account for in rational terms and provided with a label of conwenience,namely culture.The Need to Reformulate the Theoretical Approach to Cross Cultural Management We may hold up Adlers definition
30、 of cross cultural management,which we quoted above,as a representative definition of the field.As already stated,this definition and the thinking which still takes the nation-state as point of departure do not fully resonate with the interactions of transnational corporations and organizations in a
31、 still more globalized economy.At the same time it seems that many engaged in cross cultural management,teaching and training are lagging behind the changes in the world economy and in the nature of management work.Hence,Segalla et al.(2000)have chosen to criticize: The cross cultural knowledge indu
32、stry for its slowness to develop new,business-specific information useful to the current problems that European firms facecross-border integration problems associated with international mergers,acquisitions,joint ventures and alliances.(2000:42) The unduly powerful Hofstedian grip on cross cultural
33、writing and thinking may be one reason for this slowness.Another reason,paradoxically,concerns the reservations of cross cultural management scholars about concepts of culture and methodologies for researching culture in international contexts.For example,as long ago as 1988 Schneider expressed rese
34、rvations in these unambiguous terms: The construct of culture has caused much confusion.While there are multiple definitions,they tend to be vague and overly general.This confusion is added to by the multiple disciplines interested in this topic,which while increasing richness,does not necessarily b
35、ring clarity.Anthropologists,psychologists,and others bring with them their specific paradigms and research methodologies.This creates difficulties in reaching consensus on construct definitions as well as their measurement or operationalization.(Schneider,1988:242) Bartholomew and Adler (1996:26)ha
36、ve noted: The academic community, by itself,has remained primarily dedicated to single culture and comparative research which,while still necessary,is no longer sufficient-and therefore no longer as relevant for the competitive environment of todays transnational firm. Cavusgil and Das (1999),in a s
37、tudy of problems of comparative research design,sampling,instrumentation,and data collection and analysis,conclude that many problems,after 30 years of discussion,still remain largely intractable or often ignored. For their part,scholars Osland and Bird (2000)feel increasingly frustrated with the ac
38、cepted conceptualizations of culture,adding that one consequence is thatbusiness schools tend to teach culture in simpleminded terms,glossing over nuances and ignoring complexities. The cross cultural knowledge industry(Segalla et al.,2000)is,it seems,under some pressure to reformulate its guiding n
39、otions.Fortunately,Adler and a colleague in 1992 had already argued fora conceptual shift:from a hierarchical perspective of cultural influence,compromise and adaptation,to one of collaborative cross cultural learning(Bartholomew and Adler,1996:27).They have also focused on the links between cross c
40、ultural management and technological innovation and the management of transnational enterprises.The repositioning of cross cultural management into these domains is plainly part of the desired conceptual shift.Once the shift has been made(i.e. once it has been accepted by researchers),the quest will be on for new concepts to describe and analyse the cultural complexity in different business settings.
