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1、The Comparative Study on Animal Terms between English and Chinese from the Perspective of Culture英汉动物词汇的文化比较研究摘要文化与语言密不可分。语言是种有助于记录和阐释文化的媒介，正是通过语言，人脑中零碎的印象和概念才得以以具体的文字方式重组。一种特定语言中的词汇，除非包涵了文化元素，否则只是字典中毫无生命力的符号。文化因语言而得以活灵活现。另一方面，文化不仅仅是人类自身的相互关系和行为方式，即文化不只关乎到人类本身，还关系到动物。人类不是孑然一身的，因为无论过去，现在，将来，动物都相伴其间。它
2、们使人类的生活变得便利，并为其增添乐趣。动物词汇应用频繁，除了本身所指的动物外，还包含一些引申义。本文拟从中英文化，历史，思维模式等方面对一些动物词汇及相关词句进行分析，并探究造成这些差异的可能原因。 关键词：动物词汇 比较分析 引申义 文化ABSTRACT Culture and language are inseparably interwoven. Language is a vehicle that helps record and interpret culture; its through language that pieces of abstract impressions a
3、nd conceptions in mans mind can be reconstructed in concrete words. Only when words and phrases in a certain language are combined with some cultural elements could they cease to be dead symbols of meaning as what they are in the dictionary. Culture becomes alive by means of language. On the other h
4、and, culture is more than the interrelationships and behavior patterns of mankind, in other words, culture is not only unique to human, but also something concerning animals. Humankind is not separate beings, for animals came before us, now surround us and will help us along into the future. They fa
5、cilitate and add spice to human life. Animal terms, as one group of the most frequently used lexicons, carry some extended meanings more than what they denote on the surface, since with the elapse of time, human beings have tied these words with their habits, customs and society. This article will a
6、nalyze several animal terms and the relevant expressions in terms of the Chinese and English cultures, histories, thinking models etc., and explore the possible reasons which can account for these differences. Keywords：animal terms comparative analysis extended meaning cultureCONTENTSAbstractI摘要II 1
7、 Introduction 12 The Comparative Analysis of Some Animal Terms . 22.1 Dragon.22.2 Cat .22.3 Goat (Sheep) .32.4 Rat (Mouse) .52.5 Elephant.62.6 Raven (Crow) .73 The Causes of Cultural Differences.93.1 Language Determinism93.2 Lexical Gap and Cultural Gap.93.3Different Histories,Geographic Features an
8、d Mode of Production. . 103.4 Mythology, Religions and Customs.113.5 Different Thinking Models and Aesthetic Judgements.123.6 Associative Meaning and Semantic Change.134 The Significance of the Study. .155 Conclusion. 16References. 17Acknowledgements19,16261 IntroductionLanguage is regarded as a mir
9、ror of society, through which we can understand the social activities and culture of a certain society better. Vocabulary, as one of the most important parts of a language, will surely reflect the multi-dimensional image of a society. Countries of different cultures attach various associative meanin
10、gs to their vocabulary, which is especially obvious in animal terms. Since animals play an important role in our daily life, animal terms may epitomize the essence and the value system of society, which reflect the distinctive history and culture of a certain nation. As a result, animal terms are bo
11、nded with natural phenomena, social activities, some abstract concepts and concrete instances.We usually use animal terms to express “extra” meanings beyond what they denote because they help reveal certain cultural factors. The comparative analysis of animal terms in Chinese and English from a cult
12、ure perspective will help find out the difference between two cultures, histories, cognitive systems and language evolutions. And this study will also be of great importance to cross-cultural communication, foreign language teaching and learning.2 The Comparative Analysis of Some Animal Terms2.1 Dra
13、gonDragon in western culture enjoys a low cultural rank, but in China, it is a spiritual and cultural symbol representing prosperity and good luck.The word “dragon” is taken from Greek word “drakon” which means “to see”, “to look at”. According to Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary of Current Engl
14、ish, dragon is a “fabulous creature like a crocodile or snake, often with wings and claws, able to breath out fire, often guarding a treasure; (colloq) fierce person”. And according to Brewers Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, the word “dragon” was used “by ecclesiastics of the Middle Ages as the symb
15、ol of sin in general and paganism in particular.” Taken as similar to snakes, dragon is seen as the symbol of evil, which should be wiped out. A case in point is the heroic deeds of a Scandinavian hero, Beowulf, who fought against the monster Grendel, his territories in imitation of the medieval pra
16、ctice of putting sea serpents and other mythological creatures in blank areas of map. We Chinese have been holding for a long time that we are the “descendants of dragon”. This, however, does not necessarily means that we own the blood and flesh the same as that of “dragon”. Dragons have major spiri
17、tual significance in our religions and cultures. Chinese people pay peculiar homage to dragon because in Chinese history dragon is an unfathomable divinity having supernatural power. It makes precipitation, brings auspiciousness and harvest to people. It is so sacred and respectable that even the Ch
18、inese emperors deem it as the symbol of them. Therefore, instead of the derogatory meanings in English, “dragon” embodies those laudatory ones like “power”, “strength”, “auspiciousness” and “wisdom” in Chinese. In addition to this, people in China not only worship dragon but also associate it with d
19、aily articles, prospects, and good fortunes. For example, “望子成龙”(to hope ones children will have a bright future), “亚洲四小龙”(the four tigers of Asia), “龙眼”(longan), “龙虾”(lobster). (牛新生，2003) 2.2 CatCat is one of the most common domestic pets, whether in foreign countries or China. For Chinese culture,
20、 cats are mostly cute and amenable thanks to their agile and tame appearance. Although they are thought to be less loyal than dogs, people usually link them with lovely things, such as“馋猫”（the nick name for those greedy people）and“招财猫”（Maneki Neko, a cat statue is believed to bring good luck to the
21、owner）. Nevertheless, there are also some negative views about cats. For instance, in his article Dogs, Cats and Mice, Lu Xun mentioned that he had a hearty dislike to cats. There are several reasons that contribute to this: firstly, cats are like schadenfreudes, they fiddle with their games for the
22、 mere merrymaking instead of swallowing them immediately; and secondly, even though cats, tigers and lions are all felines, cats are more of coquetry; in addition to this, the mews of cats and the incident of his pet blesmol eaten by a cat all left Lu a bad impression on cats.（鲁迅，1932） In the wester
23、n and several ancient religions, cats are believed to be exalted souls, companions or guides for humans, they are all-knowing but mute so they cannot influence decisions made by humans（Geyer, Georgie Anne, 2004) . According to British, “a cat has nine lives” because they think cats are full of vital
24、ity.Cats are also called “puss” or “kitty”, which bears the meaning of “a very amiable, likable person” and “jug or vessel” respectively. “Cat” is also an informal term for “a youth or man”. Moreover, a “fat cat” connotes a wealthy contributor to a political campaign fund and a “cool cat” a hipster.
25、 “Be the cats whiskers/pajamas” means “to be the best thing, person, idea, etc”. In Hamlet, Shakespeare wrote “Let Hercules himself do what he may, the cat will mew and dog will have his day,” which means “let it be”.Apart from the good impressions about cat, many cultures, including English, have n
26、egative superstitions about cats. A case in point would be the belief that a black cat “crossing your path” leads to bad luck. In some cartoons like Tom and Jerry or Cinderella, cats are portrayed to be cunning and wickedly. Thats why “hell cat” is used to describe witches or a spiteful woman gossip
27、. The expression “Velvet paws hide sharp claws”(口蜜腹剑), is derived from La Fontaines fable, The Monkey and the Cat, referring to one used unwittingly by another to accomplish his own purposes; “grin like a Cheshire cat” means to grin broadly, which was first used by the pseudonymous British satirist
28、Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in the late 18th century, but we know better the phrase because of Lewis Carrolls Alice s Adventures in Wonderland, (published 1865). (The Phrase Finder)2.3 Goat (sheep)Goat and sheep are both indispensable animals to the daily life of human beings. As one of the oldest do
29、mesticated species, they are raised for meat, pelts, milk, and scientific tests. In the twentieth century they also gained in popularity as pets.Influenced by religions and Greek and Roman mythology, apart form the original meaning, the word “ goat” has several other meanings, among which includes “
30、licentious man” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). Such phrases as “to get someones goat” (to irritate someone; to annoy and arouse someone to anger), “to ride the goat” (to join an institution secretly), and “to act/play the goat” (to behave in a silly way, sometimes in order to make people laugh
31、) are all cases of extended meanings springing from its original meaning. The extended meanings of “goat” come from some mythological stories and religious beliefs. Several mythological hybrid creatures are believed to consist of parts of the goat, including the Chimera, Capricorn, faun and satyr. I
32、t was also acceptable for some kinds of sacrifices. On Yom Kippur, the festival of the Day of Atonement, two goats were chosen and lots were drawn for them. with some evil image. According to Christianity, the depiction of the Devil was that of a goat-like face with horns and small beard. And the go
33、at has had a lingering connection with Satanism and pagan religions, even into modern times.As regards sheep, the English usually associate it with “a timid defenseless simpleton who is readily preyed upon” or “a docile and vulnerable person who would rather follow than make an independent decision”
34、. Being a key animal in the history of farming, sheep have a deeply entrenched place in human culture, finding representation in many languages and literary works, such as the mythology Golden Fleece. Sheep are used as sacrificial animals, too. Joan of Arc, the national heroine of France who led the
35、 French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years War, was likened to a white sheep to indicate her sanctity.Sheep also enters some sayings and idioms frequently with such phrases as “black sheep”. To call an individual a “black sheep” implies that he or she is an odd or disreputa
36、ble member of a group. This usage derives from the recessive trait that causes an occasional black lamb to be born in to an entirely white flock. These black sheep were considered undesirable by shepherds, as black wool is not as commercially viable as white wool. If people behave “like sheep”, they
37、 all do what the others are doing, without thinking for themselves.（American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms）And when distinguishing good people from bad people, we usually say “ to sort out/separate the sheep from the goats”. The English culture attaches so much significance to sheep and goats as a r
38、esult of the religious and historical factors. For a long time, husbandry had caught great weight in the UKs agricultural economy, and wool had been the major export product and the lifeline of the nations wealth. Sheepskin is likewise used for making clothes, footwear, rugs, and other products. Byp
39、roducts from the slaughter of sheep are also of great value (Wikipedia). The importance of sheep farming is illustrated by the case of enclosure movement, the process through which farmland shared in common for communal grazing and agriculture or marginal land such as fens and moors were fenced off
40、for private use, typically pasturage for wool production.In Chinese culture, few associations are attached to goat and sheep, and people take them as just one of the most common domesticated animals. But in Sima QiansHistorical Records, such sentences can be seen as “all those, who are as fierce as
41、tiger, or as obstinate as goat, or as greedy as wolf, could not survive.” Accordingly, goat is usually considered stubborn and hard to tame in ancient Chinese culture.2.4 Rat (Mouse)In imperial Chinese culture, the rat (sometimes referred to as the mouse) is the first of the twelve animals of the Ch
42、inese zodiac. It is said that people born in this year are expected to possess qualities associated with rats, including creativity, honesty, generosity, ambition, a quick temper and wastefulness (Wikipedia). And the expression “像老鼠一样精” (as shrewd as a mouse) is not uncommon in Chinese conversations
43、. Whereas, having the odious appearance and behaviors, rats are seen as one of the abominations. In ancient China, people fear and despise the rat because this creature can at times damage and eat crops, be disease-ridden, spreading diseases through their parasites and feces. In China, there is a sa
44、ying“老鼠过街人人喊打” ( a person or thing is hated by everyone), and expressions like“贼眉鼠眼” (shifty-eyed), “胆小如鼠”(as timid as a hare),“鼠目寸光”(cannot see beyond ones nose), “抱头鼠窜” (to scamper off like a frightened rat). Notwithstanding, in Lu Xuns Dogs, Cats and Mice, since Lu viewed cats negatively, its und
45、erstandable that he took a relatively positive attitude towards rats. And indeed, in the contemporary society, people have changed their views about this ever heinous animal, taking it cute and acute, for which we can find evidence in some Chinese cartoons such as The Adventures of Shuke & Beita, a
46、fairytale about two little smart mice.Not come singly but in pairs, whether as good guys who are endowed with certain virtues like kindness, amicability, smartness. Some people in European cultures keep rats as pets and conversely find them to be tame, clean, intelligent, and playful. English associ
47、ations with the rat are generally negative. In the English language, “rat” is often an insult. “Rat” is generally used to signify an unscrupulous character and refers to an unpleasant person, especially one who is not loyal or tricks somebody. As a noun, “rat” means “a person who is deemed to be des
48、picable or contemptible”, or “one who reveals confidential information in return for money”. “Rat race” means a fierce struggle for success, especially in one s career or business, when describing the throat-cutting competition of the contemporary society, we can say “rat race”. The proverb “Rats abandon a sinking ship” means something is about to fail because large numbers of people begin to leave it, implying
