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1、The Problem of Evil-A Universal Issue Seen From Western Perspectives ContentsAbstract (English)Abstract (Chinese)1 Introducing the issue - 32 Biblical basis of the problem of evil - 42.1 Adamic myth2.2 The new testament between God and Man3 Theological perspectives on the problem of evil - 53.1 Phil
2、osophical methods3.2 Augustines theodicy3.3 Pre-Augustine and post-Augustine reflections4 Intellectual exploration and trends of development - 114.1 The trends in modern ages4.2 Contemporary significance5 Conclusion - 13AcknowledgementReferencesAppendix The Problem of Evil -A Universal Issue Seen Fr
3、om Western PerspectivesAbstract:Human race had had the capability to land on Moon, to travel in the outer space for decades, but no one in the race dare to declare his control of his inner space after thousands of year efforts. This article is going to give a brief glance on western peoples perennia
4、l efforts in dealing with the problem of evil, which is believed to be an irreducible nature of beings in western theology. Ill present the arguments hold by Augustine and his profound influence on later reformers and the whole Christianity. Though its mostly concerning with the theological aspects,
5、 I also paid attention to the philosophical explanations and its practical meaning for us. Then the introduction of modern situation, starting from Nietzsche, would stimulate the readers interest in connecting the reality with the abstract concept of evil. And my own designed survey, to some extent,
6、 will show the contemporary attitude towards the issue.Key words：evil, Bible, Augustine, theodicy, 摘要尽管人类登上月球、遨游太空的梦想早在几十年前就以实现，但至今人类几千年的努力也没能让我们真正的了解自己的内在世界。本文将对西方神学中认为是人性中不可克服的罪恶因素进行简单分析；将具体分析奥古斯丁对这一问题的观点，及其对改教者和整个基督教是影响。虽然文章的大量分析是来自神学观点，但也引入了哲学思想。而接下来对于现代状况的介绍，尤其是尼采之后，希望能引导读者把理论与实践相联系从而分析实际问题。我的调
7、查分析将从一定程度上反映当代人对于罪恶问题的态度。关键词：罪恶，圣经，奥古斯丁，神正论1. Introducing the issueThe most important thing in the world is to know oneself.-Montaigne (1533-1592)When someone tells a lie, pretends to be what he isnt, or tried his best to survive by any kind of means; we always say “Thats Man!” and it seems that mos
8、t of us have a consensus on Man (ourselves). However, whats Man indeed? In retrospect of two-thousand years of western culture, great minds had made their perennial efforts to get a fixed definition of human kind or at least some essential traits which might be called the nature of human, but the qu
9、estion not only has not been settled, on the contrast, the various answers which lead to different directions have caused “a seriously cultural and ethical crisis” 德 恩斯特卡西尔 著，甘阳 译，（1985）人论上海译文出版社 P29. Just as Max Scheler who first smell the crisis protest: in any period, we have never been so integr
10、ative about ourselves like today, since there are three distinguished humanics: one based on science, another on philosophy and the third one on theology; and each of them is separate from others. 德 马克斯舍勒 著，李伯杰 译，（1989）人在宇宙中的地位贵州人民出版社 P13Back to the classical Greek philosophy, we can easily detect S
11、ocrates definition: human is an existence that has reasonable responses to those rational questions. 德 恩斯特卡西尔 著，甘阳 译，（1985）人论上海译文出版社 P9This definition concerns the knowledge and morality aspects of human, as Aristotle stated the search of knowledge is part of human nature 亚历士多德，980 A.D， （1981）形而上学 商
12、务印书馆 P1, and knowledge helps us to establish the moral system which guides us to be more rational about our knowledge. As Stoicism insisted, Socrates also held the same basic view that the privileges and the first responsibility of being a man is to inquiry himself, to ask whats the relationship bet
13、ween him and the sense inside him that governs all. 马可奥勒留 121-180 著，何怀宏 译，（2000）沉思录北京 生活读书新知三联书店From this point, Stoicism made humanities strongly feel the obligation of being harmonious with Nature in knowledge while being independent from Nature in morality. That is to say man should make full use
14、 of their wisdom and freedom to search for knowledge. This freedom is thought to be the fundamental virtue in Stoicism but turned to be the essential evil and fault in theology (Christianity), which had been the master of human cognition in human culture from two thousands of years ago. Numerous the
15、ologians, such as Augustine, John Calvin, and Tertullian, gave their own understanding of human, and mostly according to Bible, the only holy book for the followers of the religious.The one based on science started in Renaissance when a culture was created to free man to discover and enjoy the world
16、 in a way not possible under the medieval Churchs dispensation. Sciences advanced in logical progression and some scientists even tried to establish an ethical theory through mathematics (Spinoza) or geometry (Pascal), which they thought to be the only sensible understanding of the relation between
17、Man and universe. As in 16th century the Copernican theory proved Sun to be the center of the universe, the emancipation of natural science from theology started and proceeded with giant strides, the dominant position of God was doubted. Especially, in 19th century when Darwinism presented lots of f
18、acts and observations for the origin of species by means of natural selection and the descent of Man, an obvious definition of Man was given; all solutions to Man seems to be easy. However, the settlement is still far away from the final goal, not only a strong and immediate opposition from theologi
19、ans spurted and never ceased, but more and more complexity of human beings come to us. In the recent 100 years, all means of searching for the final and exclusive definition have been adopted, such as, Dewey (1859-1952, the advocator of symbolism philosopher) gave focused on human work (the symbolic
20、 activity) and said it to be the center of circle in the explanation of the nature of human; 德 恩斯特卡西尔 著，甘阳 译，（1985）人论上海译文出版社 P87 Sigmund Freud gave prominence to sex instinct and laid out his analysis about superego which was developed later by philosopher Nietzsche. While these scientific and philo
21、sophic interpretations appear to be rational and modify the notion of rationality, people become more confused about the nature of human.Notwithstanding the confusion, referring to “human nature”, we are easily and definitely caught by the question whether Man are born good or evil. Both in the west
22、 and China, two different arguments are repeatedly claimed and supported; the problem of evil did and does worth peoples efforts in the process of studying ourselves. For example, in China, Confucius made the original goodness of human nature the keynote to his system, whilst Xun Zi insisted the opp
23、osite. As the great influence of western ideology, the necessity of knowing it must be fulfilled.Therefore, Id like to invite you to travel along the route of western experience in seeking the truth of human evil, from the biblical times to the period that we call postmodern.2. Biblical basis of the
24、 problem of evilBible, the only holy book for the followers of God, contains two parts-Old Testament and New Testament. While the former is on God and the law of God; the latter concerns the doctrine of Jesus Christ. Testament means agreement, thats the agreement between God and Human. Its very firs
25、t version is in Hebraic, and was translated into more then 200 languages for the wild spread of Christianity all over the world. As the only authority Scripture, its stories are the basis, either of the western culture, or of all the theological studies. t, we can also trace he problem of evil back
26、to the Bible.2.1Adamic mythAdamic myth Probably the first of the ancient Hebraic stories to be used to account for the sinful state of the world was that of the angel marriages: “the sons of God saw that they were fair; and they took wives for themselves of all that they chose”, thus the divine and
27、human essence mixed. Surveying this situation, “the Lord saw that the wickedness of humankind was great in the earth,” “and the Lord was sorry that he had made humankind on the earth,” Hebrew Bible, Genesis vi the Great Flood became the punishment on human. This brief passage was elaborated into the
28、 story of the Watchers in the Book of Enoch whose writing probably covered the last two centuries B.C. before Christ.However, towards the end of the pre-Christian era this story lost ground and was gradually replaced by the story of the fall of Adam and Eve, which has been take as the origin of sin.
29、 Since Eve was tricked by the serpent, “she took of its fruits (the Tree of Knowledge) and ate; and she also gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate.” Hebrew Bible, Genesis iii But the Adam myth itself, as we find in its primitive simplicity in the early pages of the Book of Genesis,
30、must be distinguished from the later interpretation of it adopted by St. Paul, and the further development of this by St. Augustine, and of course from its literary presentation in the greatest epic in English, telling:Of mans first disobedience, and the fruitOf that forbidden Tree, whose mortal tas
31、teBrought Death into the world, and all our woeThe dramatic fall story which lived most vividly within the Christian circle and outside is not only a simple narrative about the first man and woman, every role involved gets its own symbolism meaning, even the serpent was sometimes treated as the fall
32、 angel, and sometimes the Devil. The studies on it are various and formed a systematic body of teaching which we would talked about later in different views on evil.The Test for Job Job, a praised figure in Bible, is a lawabiding and God-fearing innocent man. Yet, for his goodness, Satan denigrates
33、Job in front of God, he was tested by God. Job first lost property and children, and then was attacked on health. Unlike his friends, even in his physical and spiritual anguish, he spoke for all humankind-all the decent, compassionate, good people who have known or experienced what Job has been affl
34、icted with. His behavior has made him a nonesuch for the Gods follows. Though the result of the story-Job was rewarded twice of what he lost-turns to a fair solution-is satisfactory, a philosophical question is remained: why God allow the innocent to suffer and what can help human avoid evil.2.2The
35、New Testament between God and ManWhen we seek the New Testament basis of the doctrine of the fall of mankind in Adam and Eve it is thus to Paul that we turn, and especially to Romans. Pauls teaching is terribly difficult to interpret; but nevertheless the following relative points present a wide mea
36、sure of agreement among Pauline commentators. A. Death is a consequence of sin. B. Mankind forms a corporate whole in relation to God, and morality came upon this racial unity as a result of the result of the sin of our first ancestor, Adam.C. The conjunction of sin and death has descended from Adam
37、 to all his children through a tendency to sin that is part of our inherited psychophysical make-up.D. The inherited sinful tendency then produces actual sins, which are branded as such by the prohibitions of the law.E. As sin and death came thus through one man, Adam; so they will be abolished thro
38、ugh one man, Christ.F. As well as evil men there are evil spirits. John Dick, Evil and The God of Good, (1966) The Macmillan Press LTD M P206All these six points clearly present in Roman when Paul went to Roman to proclaim the gospel to the barbarians. Where is the gospel from? According to the New
39、Testament, though human had done unexcused sinful activities, God still love them and sent his only son Jesus to help human to overcome their evil. Jesus “is the way, the truth, and the life”, he is “in the Father, and Father is in him. After the Crucifixion of Jesus, human got the opportunity to “h
40、ave life in his name.” Hebrew Bible, John 3.Theological perspectives on the problem of evilThe setting within this subject cannot be treated explicitly without connection with Christian faith, which present its coverage of a third of the population and the land of globe. And the logic and philosophi
41、c methods helped the formation of theological theories that I will introduce in the following.3.1 A paradox and some major approachesBefore we get into the systematic views of the great minds, I think its necessary for us go through one word, two poles of thought, and three controversial proposition
42、s:TheodicyThe word “theodicy” which coined by Leibniz means the justification of God, which is concerned with reconciling the goodness and justice of God with the observable facts of evil and suffering in the world. Encyclopedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition This conception, raised by Augustine, wa
43、s greatly accepted, we even can read from Milton to “assert providence and justify the ways of God to man.” In latter part, well have a close look on it on 3.2.Monism or dualismChristian thought concerning theodicy has always moved between the opposite poles set by the inherent logic of the problem-
44、monism and dualism:Monism, the philosophical view that the universe forms an ultimate harmonious unity, suggests the theodicy that evil is only apparent and would be recognized as good if we could but see it in its full cosmic context: “All partial evil, universal good.”Such methods as to unify the
45、whole visible world in one substance are also adopted by many contemporary scientists, such as, Dalton who tried to identify atom as the basic and essential particle in the material world, while Avogadro say it to molecule. Since Spinoza took unification as his aim, he deduces his monistic doctrine
46、from the idea of substance, that is, all things have necessarily flowed forth in an infinite number of ways, or always follow the same necessity. As Spinoza stated each finite thing is making its own proper contribution to this in finite perfection. Then the solution obviously emerged: evil is just
47、an illusion of our finite perfection.Dualism, insisting that good and evil are utterly and irreconcilably opposed to one another and their duality can be overcome only by one destroying the other, postulates two deities, one good and the other malevolent In the last part of Bible the final battle be
48、tween good and evil supported dualism, so most western thinkers accept and take it. This type traces its ancestry back to Plato, the originator of so many of the elements of Western thought; He said “for evil we must find some other causes, not God.” John Dick, Evil and The God of Good, (1966) The Macmillan Press LTD M P26 In 19th century
