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1、Old World versus New World: the origins of organizational diversity in the international wine industry, 1850-1914 Earlier versions of this paper have been given at the 2008 Economic History Association Meeting, New Haven, and the Universities of Burgos and Murcia. I am grateful for comments and help
2、 from Alex Borg, Eva Fernandez, James Lapsley, Jos Miguel Martnez Carrin, John V.Nye, Alan Olmstead, Begoa Prieto Moreno and Paul Rhode. Financial help has been provided in Spain by SEJ2006-08188, Consolider 2006/04046/003 and CAMCP07 and at UCDavis, the Center for the Evolution of the Global Econom
3、y and Institute for Governmental Affairs, and in Spain James SimpsonUniversidad Carlos III de Madrid. Departamento de Historia Econmica e InstitucionesInstituto Figuerola de Historia EconmicaAbstract:Wine production in Europe today is dominated by small family vineyards and cooperative wineries, whi
4、le in the New World viticulture and viniculture is highly concentrated and vertically integrated. This paper argues that these fundamental organizational differences appeared from the turmoil in wine markets at the turn of the twentieth century. As technological change endangered existing rents, gro
5、wers, wine-makers, and merchants lobbied governments to introduce laws and create new institutions that regulated markets in their favor. The political voice and bargaining power of the economic agents varied greatly both within, and between, countries, leading to the introduction of very different
6、policies. Key words: wine history, farm organization, vertical co-ordination, agricultural commodity chains, cooperatives, appellationsJEL Classification: L14, N51, Q13Wine production in Europe today is dominated by small family vineyards and cooperative wineries, while in the New World viticulture
7、and viniculture is highly concentrated and vertically integrated. As a result, 70 per cent of the nations wine in the United States and Australia is produced by the top five wine companies, 50 per cent in Argentina and Chile, compared to figures of only 10 per cent in countries such as France, Italy
8、, or Spain. Anderson, Norman, and Wittwer (2004), Table 2.1 This paper argues that these fundamental organizational differences have historical explanations that date from the turmoil in wine markets at the turn of the twentieth century. Technological change radically altered the nature of the indus
9、try before 1914, in particular creating economies of scale in wine making and allowing the commercial production of drinkable table wines in geographical regions where previously they had been considered too difficult. As technological change endangered existing rents, growers, wine-makers, and merc
10、hants lobbied governments to introduce laws and create new institutions that regulated markets in their favor. The political elite responded, supporting the creation of new institutions which helped preserve their own political power in the future. The political voice and bargaining power of the eco
11、nomic agents varied greatly both within, and between, countries, leading to the introduction of very different policies. First in France, and then in other European countries, the political influence of the hundreds of thousands of small growers forced their governments to support producer cooperati
12、ves that allowed growers to benefit from both the transaction cost-economizing effect of the family farm in grape production and the economies of scale found in wine-making, while regional appellations (later appellation controlee) created collective regional brands for small producers, thereby rest
13、ricting the economic power of merchants and the tendency towards vertical integration. By contrast in the New World, there were few small family wine producers when the new wine making technologies appeared, and consequently their electoral influence limited. Instead, new investment in modern wineri
14、es was accompanied by the appearance of specialist grape producers, and a handful of merchants who created hierarchical organizations, integrating vertically and horizontally and investing heavily in advertising and brands to sell to consumers generally unaccustomed to wine in distant markets. By th
15、e turn of the twentieth century the California Wine Association controlled about 80 per cent of the regions wine sales and the importer Peter Burgoyne accounted for two thirds of Australian exports to the British. The creation of these hierarchical organizations reinforced in these markets the trend
16、 towards fortified dessert wines as oppose to table wines after 1900, which as late the 1960s accounted for at least half of national wine production. This paper compares the response to technological change and the demands for state intervention and institutional innovation in a number of very diff
17、erent wine producing nations: France, Portugal and Spain in the Old World, and Algeria, Australia and the United States, three countries that only began commercial wine-production during the period in question. Section one argues that traditional grape and wine production favored small scale integra
18、ted production. From the mid nineteenth century producers had to adapt to three major exogenous events: the integration of national and international markets, the appearance of new vine diseases and production shortages that these provoked, and the major advances in the knowledge of fermentation and
19、 the development of wine making equipment that produced economies of scale and which allowed cheap table wines to be produced in hot climates. These changes encouraged an expansion of production in hot climates in the New World and a shift in the locus of production of cheap table wines from Europes
20、 centre to the periphery. Thus while the four Midi departments and Algeria produced the equivalent of less than 15 per cent of Frances domestic wine consumption in the 1820s, this figure had reached 50 per cent by 1910. Algeria became an integral part of France after 1848, and Algirs, Oran and Const
21、antine were organised as French dpartements. Other regions, such as La Mancha in Spain or Puglia in Italy experienced similar changes, although at later dates. By the turn of the twentieth century, a combination of higher yields and increase in adulteration flooded wine markets and led to a collapse
22、 in prices while improved wine-making technologies threaten the viability of thousands of small producers. The rest of the paper examines the repose to these two problems, and in particular the creation of cooperatives and regional appellations in parts of Europe, and vertical integration in Califor
23、nia and Australia. 1. Traditional wine production and technological change prior to 1914.Arthur Young noted in his travels through France in the late 1780s that the cultivation of the vine depended almost entirely on manual labour demanding no other capital than the possession of the land and a pair
24、 of arms; no carts, no ploughs, no cattle. Young (1794), 2, p.25. The version used here is the second chapter on vines of the Bury St.Edmonds edition. In traditional viticulture there were few economies of scale, and entry costs were low, as the vine could be grown competitively on small plots of la
25、nd marginal to other crops, and a couple of hectares was considered sufficient to maintain a family. Lachiver (1988), p.245. But transaction costs in viticulture were higher than with most other forms of agriculture, because nature influenced considerably both the size and quality of the harvest. Ou
26、tput was sensitive to the quality and timing of labor inputs, and vines could be easily and permanently damaged if the pruning, plowing, and hoeing operations were badly carried out. Galassi (1992) pp.78-83 and Hoffman (1984) As a result, vines were rarely cultivated by workers other than their owne
27、rs. Rental contracts were very rare as tenants might be been tempted to increase short-term output at the expense of reducing the productive life of the vine, while sharecropping suffered from the high costs associated with dividing the harvest. Carmona and Simpson (2007). As Allen and Lueck (2002),
28、 p.116 note, when output is highly variable, the opportunities for the farmer to underreport (in effect, steal) the crop increase. Wine was a major commodity in countries such as France, Portugal and Spain, and provided employment for hundreds of thousands if not millions of workers. In France, wher
29、e statistical records are relatively good, there were reportedly 1.5 million growers around 1890, many of whom made their own wine. In the New World numbers were much smaller as the industry was still relatively unimportant at this time (Table 1), although once again most grapes and large amounts of
30、 wine were produced on small family farms. For example in California there was an estimated 5,000 growers, and George Hussman noted that the large majority of our wine growers . are comparatively poor men. Roberts (1889) p.199, Pinney (1989) p.337 and Husmann (1888) p.iii. Likewise in Victoria (Aust
31、ralia), 2,382 growers cultivated 1,123 hectares of vines in 1900, with just 72 holdings being of more than 20 hectares. Victoria (1900), p.5.Table 1Leading wine producing countries before 1914Wine production in millions of hectolitres% of total in 1909/131865-741885-941909-13France55.431.946.431.4It
32、aly23.631.946.031.2Spain17.121.914.910.1Austria-Hungary 3.2 7.7 7.9 5.4Portugal 2.1 4.3 4.8 3.3Greece 0.2 1.8 3.2 2.2Germany 2.5 2.5 1.8 1.2Russia 3.3 3.5 1.4* 0.9*Rumania 0.1 2.8 1.4 0.9Bulgaria 0.8 0.5Other European 0.9 0.6European total129.5 87.8Algeria0.23.1 7.9 5.4Argentinan.a.n.a. 4.4 3.0Chile
33、n.a.n.a 2.0 1.4USA0.10.6 1.9 1.3Russia (Asia) 0.9 0.6South Africa0.70.3 0.3 0.2Tunisia 0.3 0.2Australian.a0.1 0.2 0.1Other countries5.115.7 0.2 0.1Non-European producers18.112.3World 113.5125.3147.6100.0* Refers to European RussiaSources: 1865-74 and 1885-94, Morilla (1994, p.303). 1909/13. Institut
34、 International de Agricole 1913 and 1914 (1915, pp.110-1), Mitchell (1995, p.240), Portugal, Lains (1998, p.965); USA: Simpson, forthcoming, chapter nine.Europes traditional wine producing regions enjoyed higher population densities and landowners accounted for a greater percentage of the rural popu
35、lation compared to other forms of agriculture. The historian Ernest Labrousse argued that the relative equality in landownership and the fact that most vineyards were cultivated by their owners, implied that there were less conflicts, while Marcel Lachiver notes that one finds more homogeneity in th
36、e wine-growing regions, less submission, more democratic spirit, more fraternity. Labrousse (1944), p.596 and Lachiver (1988), p.246, cited in Brennan (1997), p.10 The presence of large numbers of small property owners implied that major problems such as the widespread destruction caused by phylloxe
37、ra, or the collapse of wine prices at the turn of the twentieth century, could be converted into important political issues of the day, both regionally and nationally.Wine-making was based on simple technologies and took place in most growers houses. The problem in 1850 was not so much an under inve
38、stment in equipment as the lack of knowledge of why wines were good in some years, but undrinkable in others. According to Maynard Amerine, the roles of yeasts, bacteria, enzymes, sugar, and oxygen were largely unknown. White wines were usually oxidized in flavor and brown in color; most red wines w
39、ere high in volatile acidity and often low in alcohol. As a result, at least 25 percent of the wine spoiled before fermentation was complete, and much of the wine was of a very poor quality. Adams (1973) cited in Pinney (1989), p.354 and Amerine and Singleton (1976 ed.), p.21. The short life of most
40、 wines implied that any remaining in the cellar on eve of the harvest was thrown out to make way for the more valuable new wine. Richard Ford noted for Valdepeas (La Mancha) in the 1840s that the red blood of this “valley of stones” issues with such abundance, that quantities of old wine are often t
41、hrown away, for the want of skins, jars, and casks into which to place the new. Ford (1848: 1970), p.161. From the mid nineteenth century individual producers had to adapt to four major exogenous events: the integration of national and international markets, the appearance of new vine diseases and p
42、roduction shortages that these provoked, and the major advances in the knowledge of fermentation, the development of wine making equipment that produced economies of scale and which allowed cheap table wines to be produced in hot climates, and the development of new political institutions and possib
43、ilities to lobby government.The demand constraints placed on the wine industry were significantly reduced during the second half of the nineteenth century by a combination of cheap transport, urbanization and rising incomes. The railways helped push Europes wine frontier southwards and allowed growe
44、rs in the Midi (France), La Mancha (Spain), and Puglia (Italy), regions long known to contemporaries as being especially suitable for the vine, to specialize for urban markets. Urban residents in France increased from less than ten per cent the population in 1800 to a quarter by 1890, with Paris by
45、this date having over 2.5 million inhabitants. Urban centres as 10,000+ inhabitants. De Vries (1984), pp.45-6 and Pinchemel (1987) pp.146-7. Living standards improved significantly, with GDP per capita doubling in France, Italy and Spain between 1850 and 1913, and real wages of unskilled urban worke
46、rs increasing by between a half and two-thirds. Maddison (1995, pp.104-8), Williamson (1995), pp.164-6, and Ross and Snchez-Alonso (2004), p.407. In France wine consumption rose from 76 liters per capita in 1850/4 to 108 liters in 1890/4, and peaked at 168 liters in 1900/4. Nourrisson (1990), p.321.
47、 The quantity consumed by producers and their families (and therefore exempt from taxes) grew from an annual 5 to 9 million hectoliters between 1850/4 and 1900/4, while the increase in off-farm consumption was from 18 to 42 million hectoliters. Calculated from Degrully (1910) pp.320-1. There were sm
48、aller, but significant increases in per capita consumption in other producer countries such as Italy, Portugal and Spain. This growth in consumption was all the more impressive given the fact that the phylloxera aphid devastated large areas of Europes vineyards. Phylloxera, first noticed in 1863, arrived on vines brought from the United States and destroyed the root system of Europes Vitis vinifera species. In time it killed most of the wo
