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1、The restrictions context imposes on translation in terms of meaning selection and style reproduction1. IntroductionIn China, the film American Beauty is translated into“美国丽人.”In fact, its a translation error. Its a film that reflects the male middle age crisis and has nothing to do with American bea
2、uty, so people who have watched the film may be really puzzled by its Chinese name. The original title American Beauty indeed makes people relate the film to beautiful woman. Actually, American Beauty here refers to a red rose. This is the reason why it is the red roses instead of beauties that emer
3、ge from the film continually. Our lives are full of such incorrect translation which misleads the viewers, even in the literary translation and oral translation.(Feng Youlan, 1983:23) Admittedly, it has a commercial product factor, but the most important factor is the translators ignorance of the co
4、ntexts restrictions on the translation. The success of the translation is often determined by the context seemingly insignificant. The paper intends to demonstrate the restrictions context imposes on translation in terms of meaning selection and style reproduction.2. Context Analysis and Meaning Sel
5、ectionContext plays an important role in language study and has an important restrictive function for translation process. It contains different meanings according to different linguists. On the basis of the references to the internal and external research results on context, it can be defined as: C
6、ontext is the comprehensive integration of linguistic knowledge and non-linguistic knowledge depended by any natural language expressions. According to the definition, context can be divided into linguistic context and non-linguistic context. Any context can almost be regarded as the mutual function
7、 of the linguistic context and non-linguistic context, so these two kinds of context determine the selection of meanings in the linguistic communicative activities. During the process of linguistic communication, the meaning is no longer the sentences meaning without specific context, but becoming t
8、o link with context closely. Translation as the linguistic communicative activities aims to convey the meanings between two languages occurring in the context interweaved with specific language, situation and culture and is restricted and influenced by the context deeply. As Newmark said, “Context i
9、s the most important factor of all the others in translation.”(Newmark, 1982:113) Sometimes due to the sentences unconventional grammatical structure, the specific situation restriction beyond the language and the lack of equal objects in different culture, the meanings cannot be conveyed precisely
10、by looking up the dictionary. Therefore only after analyzing the context can we choose the meaning properly and achieve “faithfulness,” “expressiveness” and “elegance” in all.2.1. Linguistic Context and TranslationLinguistic context, sometimes known as co-text can be divided into two kinds: micro co
11、ntext and macro context. The former is concerned with the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. It includes the phrase semantic context and
12、 sentence semantic context; the latter refers to the language environment outside the scope of sentence, namely discourse semantic context.(Li Shuqin, 2001:43) These three kinds of contextual factors have a restrictive function on the meaning selection in the translation process. 2.1.1. Phrase Seman
13、tic Context and TranslationThe phrase semantic context is an important factor involved in word recognition. J.R. Firth, the representative of contextualism held the view that “We all know a word by the company it keeps,” and that “By regarding words as acts, events and habits, we limit our inquiry t
14、o what is objective in the group life of our fellows.”(Qi Yucun, 1991:213) And he once said, “A word in a new context is a new word.”(Qi Yucun,213) In other words, one word has a new meaning in a new context. To some extent, this statement is quite accurate. Firstly, it means that one word is merely
15、 a symbol if separated from the specific context, but it can gain the meaning once it enters the context; Secondly, one word has a different meaning in a new context, therefore it can be considered as a new word. The expressions of the same symbol will have the different meanings in the different co
16、ntext. However, if the preceding or the following words provide an appropriate context for it, people can recognize the symbol more readily. For example: Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. 相同的电荷相斥，不同的电荷相吸。 He likes maths more than physics.他喜欢数学甚于喜欢物理。 In the sun beam passing through the win
17、dow there are fine grains of dust shining like gold.在射入窗内的阳光里，细微的尘埃象金子一般在闪闪发光。 Like knows like.英雄识英雄。Due to the different context, the same symbols “like” above shows totally different meanings. 2.1.2. Sentence Semantic Context and TranslationPolysemic words exist in English widely. Its not only the
18、 inevitable result of the differentiation of word meanings, but also the basic product of syntactic economy principle. So we should determine the meaning of polysemic words depending on the whole sentences meaning. For example: He likes entertaining kids.The phrase collocation “entertaining kids” ca
19、n be objective-noun or gerund-noun. So the original sentence presents two interpretations:a. He likes to amuse kids.b. He likes kids who are interesting.Whereas only when the original sentence of the polysemic words is in the following given context can it present only one interpretation.“He offered
20、 kid the jigsaws because he knew jigsaws would amuse them for hours on end. He likes entertaining kids.” Here“He likes entertaining kids ” can be translated as “He likes to amuse kids” accurately.So does the following example: I had a car stolen.It may have four different interpretations in differen
21、t contexts:a. I was given a car which was stolen from someone.b. One of my cars was stolen by someone.c. I paid someone to steal a car.d. I have finished stealing a car.If the original sentence was put in the following context, “I used to have three cars. I couldnt keep them all in my small garage.
22、I parked somewhere around my house. But I had a car stolen yesterday,” its meaning will be single and clear. Here “I had a car stolen” can be translated as “One of my cars was stolen by someone” accurately.2.1.3. Discourse Semantic Context and TranslationIn the above sections, we have discussed the
23、influence over the meaning selection of translation brought about by the micro context which taking phrase and sentence as unit. In fact, under many circumstances, especially in the literary translation, the appraisal of translation depends on whether the story plot is consistent, the personalities
24、are vivid and the logic is tight; whether the details can withstand scrutiny and reproduce the most delicate things the author attempts to show instead of depending on whether the isolated sentences or paragraphs are translated faithfully. Lets cite one sentence from the famous novel Pride and Preju
25、dice as an example.Lady Lucas was a very good kind of woman, not too clever to be a valuable neighbor to Mrs. Bennett.(Austen, 1873:7)The sentence is from the middle part of chapter 4. Without reading the former several parts, we can still translate this sentence, but the difficult point lies in the
26、 word “valuable”. Whether we can translate the word appropriately determines whether the translation can perform the personal characteristics successfully and the writers skillful choice of words can also be shown. To be sure , “valuable” can be translated into “好的,” “有价值的” and “可贵的,” therefore the
27、whole sentence is“卢卡斯夫人是个很善良的妇人，不太聪明，是班奈特夫人的好/有价值的/宝贵的邻居.” However，after considering the description of Mrs. Bennett in the preceding chapters,“好邻居 ” is probably not the best choice. From the previous three parts, we know that Mrs. Bennett is ignorant, simple-minded, short-sighted and selfish. The b
28、iggest task of her life is to let her five daughters marry “good families.” So she doesnt like her neighbor Lady Lucas who is more intelligent than herself and poses a threat to her in the aspect of marrying daughters. Lady Lucas just belongs to the kind of “not too clever.” So Mrs. Bennett is compl
29、acent as well as looking down upon Lady Lucas. In her eyes, Lady Lucas is “very good” because she is“not too clever”. Having understanding this point, we can translate “valuable” into“难得的.” “Not too clever” turns into “valuable” on the contrary. It not only satirizes on Mrs. Bennett, but also shows
30、her selfishness sharply. Therefore, the sentence should be translated as: “卢卡斯夫人很善良，又不太聪明，对班奈特夫人来说还真是个难得的邻居呢.”2.2. Non-linguistic Context and TranslationIn the non-linguistic context, the cultural context includes phrase cultural context, sentence cultural context and discourse cultural context. The
31、y all play a significant role in the translation. Just like Wang Zuoliang said: “Not understanding the social culture contained in the language, no one is able to really grasp the language.”(Wang Zuoliang, 1998:105) We all know that, in the process of translation, translation and culture are correla
32、ted with each other, therefore we must not only translate the words conceptual meaning but also the cultural image contained in the words. A successful translator should do much to cope with the understanding of that culture; otherwise, his negligence will lead to the misunderstanding of the origina
33、l work and make the same mistake like American Beauty. In view of the complexity of cultural factors and the characteristics difficult to deal with by common translation skills, we should have a comprehensive cognition and understanding to the culture of both the source language and the target langu
34、age.2.2.1. Phrase Cultural Context and TranslationWords are the most active part in a linguistic system, and the cultural image implied in language is expressed in concrete word, which contains abundant national cultural connotation. During translation, the peculiar cultural image is formed because
35、of the difference in living environment, social system, religious belief, cultural tradition and local customs between two nations. Therefore, during the translation between Chinese and English, it is necessary to analyze and compare carefully the difference of the colorful cultural images between t
36、hem to render more exactly with comprehensive integration and complete comprehension expressed sensibly. Take the word “mercury” for example: He has no mercury in him. You can not make a Mercury of every log.The first sentence cannot be translated as“他体内没有水银” in accordance with the literary meaning
37、of “mercury”. Because western ancient philosophers consider that “mercury” can be used to refer to the spirit and vigor. So after knowing this special meaning of “mercury”, we can translate the sentence as “他没有精神或他毫无活力.” The second sentence is the maxim said by Pythagoras, a great ancient Greek phil
38、osopher and mathematician. Its literal translation is “你不能把任何木材雕成风神像.” How do spirit and mercury build the connection with “log”? Originally in Greek mythology, Mercury is Airs, accordingly to the legend, his statue must be engraved by yellow poplar log and other wood can not be used to engrave the
39、Airs successfully. So the sentence should be translated as “非其材不能成器.”Another example is when Malinowski, an anthropologist, did his field work on the Trobriand Islands off eastern New Guinea, he observed that in this primitive culture the meaning of a word greatly depended upon its occurrence in a g
40、iven context, or rather, upon a real language situation in life. Take the word wood for example. In this culture, the word might be used either to refer to the solid substance of a tree, as its English equivalent suggests, or more specifically, to designate a canoe, which served as a useful means of
41、 transportation to these islands and therefore played an important role in the daily life of this speech community. The second interpretation of this word was, however, turned out to be heavily situationally or culturally specified and might not be easily captured by an outsider from a different cul
42、tural background. So when we translate the word wood, we should take its phrase cultural context into consideration.2.2.2. Sentence Cultural Context and Translation Many idioms have strong cultural color of their nations. They include names, places and allusions in the figurative part. Some originat
43、e from peculiar customs and religions of native nations. If translated literally, the translation will be prolix, dull and difficult to understand for the target language readers without knowing the cultural background. However, abandoning the image and paraphrasing the metaphorical meaning will mak
44、e the translation seemingly concise, succinct and clear. For instance: “你真是不到黄河心不死,”她低声说,无可奈何地摇摇头。This sentence presents a strong regional color of China. If it is translated into “dont go to Yellow River” literally, the target language readers may feel puzzled without knowing its background. It can
45、 reflect the original meaning as follows: “You really do refuse to give up until all hope is gone,”She murmured, shaking her head helplessly. 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。If we translate it as “Two heads are better than one”, it can still convey the basic meaning of the original sentence, but lost the cultural conno
46、tation, not even speaking of the vividness. If translated as “Three cobblers with their wits combined equal Chukeh Liang the master mind”, the cultural connotation is embedded in the translation intactly. 2.2.3. Discourse Cultural Context and TranslationIn the above sections, we have discussed the i
47、nfluence over the meaning selection of translation brought about by the cultural context taking phrase and sentence as unit. The key point doesnt merely depend on whether the isolated translation of phrase or sentence is wonderful or not, its also of great importance whether the whole article can em
48、body the cultural connotation. The following is Xu Zhimos translation of Christina Rosettes most popular poem: Song: My Dearest. Song: My DearestWhen I am dead, my dearest/Sing no sad songs for me/Plant thou no roses at my head/ nor shady cypress tree/Be the green grass above me/with showers and dew
49、drops wet/and if thou wilt, forget.I shall not see the shadows/I shall not feel the rain/I shall not hear the nightingale/Sing on, as if in pain/and dreaming through the twilight/that doth not rise nor set/Haply I may remember/and haply may I forget. 歌：我最亲爱的我死了的时候，最亲爱的，/别为我唱悲伤的歌；/我坟上不必安插蔷薇，/也无须浓荫的柏树；/让盖着我的青青的草/淋着雨，也沾着露珠；/假如你愿意，请记着我，/要是你甘心忘了我。我再不见地面的青荫，/觉不到雨露的甜蜜，/再听不见夜莺的歌喉，/黑暗中倾吐悲啼/在悠久的昏暮中消沉；/阳光不升起，也不消翳/我也许，也许记得你，/我也许，也许我
