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1、A Study of Fostering Learner Autonomy in High School English TeachingWangjunUnder the Supervision of GuoyunContentsAbstract (English)iAbstract (Chinese)ii1. Introduction12. Literature Review22.1 Humanistic Approaches22.2 Vygotskys Social Development Theory of Learning32.3 Constructivism42.4 Individu
2、al Differences of Students42.5 Teachers Role in Fostering Learner Autonomy53. Definition and Related Considerations about Learner Autonomy63.1 Definition of Learner Autonomy63.2 Characteristics of Autonomous Learner74. Feasible Approaches to Foster Learner Autonomy84.1 In-Curriculum Approaches84.2 O
3、ut-of-Curriculum Approaches135. Conclusion14References15Acknowledgements16AbstractWith the reform of education in China, the so-called quality-oriented education is always a buzzword. The New English Curriculum Standard for High School states that to foster students learner autonomy is an essential
4、part of the quality-oriented education. In real teaching practice, what should be done to foster students learner autonomy and realize the quality-oriented education? Meanwhile, because of the examination selecting system, the teaching of English in most high schools in China remains to be examinati
5、on-oriented. What interests the author of this thesis includes: whether it is feasible to foster learner autonomy among high school English learners; if so, how the enhanced autonomous ability affects their performance in English exams and the exact means to foster learner autonomy in high school En
6、glish teaching.To my part, it is feasible to foster learner autonomy through in-curriculum approaches and out-of-curriculum approaches in high school with a large number of study. Moreover, the fostering of learner autonomy doesnt conflict with the current examination talent selection system in Chin
7、a, as the enhancement of learner autonomy may benefit the students on their performance in standard exams.Key words: learner autonomy; quality-oriented education; high school English teaching摘 要随着中国的教育改革，素质教育始终是一个热门的话题。基础教育阶段新英语课程标准明确指出，培养学生的自主学习能力是素质教育的一个重要的方面。那么，在实际的教学实践过程中，究竟该如何培养学生的自主学习能力以达到素质教育
8、的目的？同时，由于考试选拔制度的存在，大多的中学英语教学仍然以应考为导向。本文主要探讨了：在中学英语教育阶段，培养学生的自主学习能力是否可行；学生自主学习能力的提高对其在考试中的表现的影响；以及中学阶段，培养学生的自主学习能力有哪些具体有效的措施。通过大量研究，本文作者认为在中学阶段通过课内和课外两个方面的综合手段来培养学生的自主学习能力是可行的；此外，学生的自主学习能力的培养和现行的考试选拔制度并不矛盾，因为学生自主学习能力的提高对英语标准化考试成绩具有一定的促进作用。关键词：自主学习; 素质教育; 中学英语教学1. IntroductionAs is said by Ye Shengtao
9、, a well-known Chinese educationalist, “The purpose of teaching is not to teach.” However, Chinese traditional education system is teacher centered, which keeps students from developing their own learning ability. With rapid development of science and technology, the accessibility of information and
10、 explosion of knowledge, the goals of education are much broader than simply the achievement of knowledge and skills in certain areas. Therefore, it is necessary for students to develop learner autonomy, which involves decision-making, taking responsibility in their own learning, and gaining experie
11、nce that enables them to pursue their lifelong education.In the field of education in western countries, researchers turned to focus on “how to learn” instead of “how to teach” long before. Henri Holec, known as the father of learner autonomy, was the first to introduce the term into the field of se
12、cond language pedagogy. Humanism, Cognitive Theory and Constructivism are the main learning theories that learner autonomy is based on. Various approaches have been suggested by western researchers to develop learner autonomy. While, little evidence shows that they are applicable in Chinese school e
13、ducation.Domestically, Chinese researchers began to show interest in the concept of learner autonomy in the 90s. However, most of the studies focus on college students and many of the researchers failed to explain detailed and exercisable approaches to help develop leaner autonomy among language lea
14、rners.With the reform of school education in China, learner autonomy has become a buzzword in recent years. “Developing studentslearner autonomy” is considered one of the main aims of high school English teaching, according to the New English Curriculum Standard for High School, issued by Chinese Mi
15、nistry of Education in 2001. It shows the transition from teacher-centered to learner-centered in English teaching and emphasizes the sustaining development of students.However, in most high schools, because of the examination selecting system in China, which means students are selected by means of
16、examinations, most of the school education is still exam-oriented instead of learner development oriented. Many language teachers are at a loss when talking about the newly advocated learner development programs. Thus, most teachers dont want to make such attempts to develop students learner autonom
17、y.The thesis consists of five chapters. In Chapter One, the author gives a brief introduction of the necessity of fostering learner autonomy in high school English teaching in China. Chapter Two is the literature review. It elaborates the theoretical basis of learner autonomy, including Humanism, Vy
18、gotskys Social Development Theory of Learning, Constructivism and some considerations about individual differences of students. Teachers role in fostering learner autonomy is discussed in this chapter as well. Chapter Three discusses various definitions of leaner autonomy and some related considerat
19、ions about learner autonomy, such as the characteristics and description of learner autonomy. In Chapter Four, the author illustrates if it is feasible to foster learner autonomy and suggests some approaches to foster learner autonomy.With all the work done, the thesis comes to a conclusion in Chapt
20、er Five. The study suggests that the integrated developing program of fostering learner autonomy would be effective in improving studentsperformance in high school English learning and the enhancement of studentslearner autonomy is beneficial to studentsperformance in standard examinations.2. Litera
21、ture ReviewIn this chapter, the author probes into the theoretical foundation of learner autonomy, which includes humanistic approaches, Vygotskys social development theory of learning, constructivism, and the considerations about individual differences of students. 2.1 Humanistic ApproachesHumanist
22、ic approaches emphasize the importance of the inner world of the learner and place the individuals thoughts, feelings and emotions at the forefront of all human development. It concentrates upon the development of the childs self-concept. According to humanistic view, good teaching is the process of
23、 inviting students to see themselves as able, valuable, and self-directing and of encouraging them to act in accordance with the self-perception. According to humanistic view, good teaching is the process of inviting students to see themselves as able, valuable, and self-directing and of encouraging
24、 them to act in accordance with the self-perception. According to Erikson (1968), every individual proceeds through eight stages from birth to old age, each of which poses a particular kind of challenge or crisis. He describes the early school years as one in which the child will establish a sense o
25、f industry as basic educational skills and learning competence are developed. Competitive situations in which children are constantly being compared with each other are more likely to generate feelings of inferiority than are situations where the emphasis is upon individualized of co-operative learn
26、ing. It is therefore important that those who teach a language to younger learners are aware of the need to foster a spirit of co-operation rather than competition, and of the development of this sense of industry. Thus, cooperation in autonomous learning is called for and verified.To conclude, Erik
27、son explained several points in his theory that includes:1) Learning and development is viewed as lifelong rather than restricted to the phase of school;2) There are different learning stages in a persons life. It enables us to see that real-life learning involves challenges which often require a pa
28、rticular kind of help from others especially the teacher;3) Learning is regarded as a cumulative process whereby our resolution of one set of life tasks will have a profound influence on how we deal with subsequent tasks;4) Leaning involves the whole person, the emotions and feelings. It does not in
29、volve only knowledge transmitting.As the theoretical ground for learner autonomy, humanistic approaches imply the fact that learning should be personalized as far as possible. That is to say, learners should develop a sense of personal identity through their experience and relate it to their future
30、goals.2.2 Vygotskys Social Development Theory of LearningVygotsky believes that childrens mental ability, language and social development are enhanced by learning that occurs through social interactions. He puts forward his theory of the Zone of Proximal Development to refer to the layer of skill or
31、 knowledge that is just beyond that with which the learner is currently capable of coping. And Vygotsky describes it as “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under a
32、dult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers”(Vygotsky,1978).Vygotskys theory requires the teacher and students to collaborate with each other in teaching and learning process. That is to say, instead of a teacher dictating her meaning to students for future recitation, a teacher should
33、 collaborate with her students in order to create meaning in ways that students can make their own (Hausfather,1996).2.3 ConstructivismConstructivism is a branch of cognitive psychology, which brings the learners personal meaning into the cognitive world of his or her own. The basic premise is that
34、an individual learner must actively build knowledge and skills (Bruner,1990). Constructivism holds that learning is a process that learners construct their knowledge initiatively instead of accepting knowledge passively and advocates learner-centeredness. As to the teachers role, constructivists con
35、sider that the teaching-learning process is not a process that the teacher transmits knowledge and skills to learners but a process that learner construct their knowledge initiatively driven by their internal motivation.2.4 Individual Differences of Students2.4.1 MotivationMotivation is a major fact
36、or in Second Language Acquisition. It means “some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something” (Harmer, 2001:51). Researchers divide studentsmotivation in various ways. Here are some major classifications of the concept.Gardner and Lambert (1972) has descri
37、bed two types of learning motivation, that is, instrumental motivation and integrative motivation. Instrumental means leaning the language as an instrument to achieve practical goals, and integrative motivation refers to leaning the language out of interest in or desire to identify with the target c
38、ulture. Holec (1981) divides motivation into two parts, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. The former one refers to the situation that students undertake an activity for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the feelings of accomplishment it evokes. Extrinsic motivation refers to
39、the situation that students perform in order to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself, like grades, stickers, teacher approval, parent reprimand or praise. 2.4.2 Self-esteemClosely related to motivation, self-esteem refers to the evaluation the learner makes of
40、himself with regard to the target language or learning in general. Hausfather defines self-esteem as: “a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself,and indicates the extent to which the individual believes in himself to be capable, si
41、gnificant and worthy”(Hausfather, 1996).2.4.3 Learning StrategiesLearning strategies are tools to improve ones language competence. OMalley and Chamot (1990) referred to learning strategies as the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new inform
42、ation. Cognitive strategies are thought processes used directly in learning which enable learners to deal with the information presented in tasks and materials by working on it in different ways (Hedge,2002). Metacognitive strategies involve planning for learning, thinking about learning and how to
43、make it effective, self-monitoring during learning, and evaluation of how successful learning has been after working on language in some way. Socio-affective strategies refers to those which provide learners with opportunities for practice. They concern how learners engage in social interactions mor
44、e effectively, work with peers to solve problems, seek encouragement and deal with affective problems such as anxiety, inhibition, self-esteem, motivation and learning styles. 2.4.4 Learning StyleLearning style denotes the typical ways in which a person takes in and processes information, makes deci
45、sions, and forms values. Learning style affects how a person learns, acts in a group, participates in activities, relates to others, solves problems, teaches and works. Considering the learning style of different students, teachers should design the instruction methods to connect with all learning s
46、tyles and introduce a wide variety of experiential elements into the English teaching, such as sound, music, visuals, movement, experience, and even talking.2.5 Teachers Role in Fostering Learner AutonomyA variety of terms are used to describe teachers role in developing learner autonomy, including
47、facilitator, helper, counselor, adviser, knower and resource. Voller (1997) reduces all these related term into three: facilitator, in which the teacher is seen as providing support for learning; counselor, where the emphasis is placed on one-to-one interaction; and resource, in which the teacher is
48、 seen as a source of knowledge and expertise. Voller (1997) also identifies the functions and qualities associated with these roles under the heading of technical and psycho-social support. 3. Definition and Related Considerations about Learner Autonomy3.1 Definition of Learner AutonomyNowadays, jus
49、t as Wenden (1991:11) said, “few teachers will disagree with the importance of helping language learners become more autonomous as learners”. While as to the definition of learner autonomy, linguists and educationalists havent reached a consensus and there are ongoing debates about it.The concept of learner autonomy stemmed from debates about the de
