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1、APS审核资料金融英审统计学 Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data. 1.统计变量集中趋势的测定：To measure the central tendency of statistical variables. Statistical indicators: arithmetic mean (distinguished from the geometric mean or harmonic mean), weighted average, mo
2、de, median 2.统计变量离散程度的判定： To measure the dispersion degree of the statistical variables . vribl Statistical indicators: range, average deviation(平均差), variance, standard deviation Variance: it is a measure of how far a set of numbers are spread out from each other. Standard deviation: It shows how m
3、uch variation or dispersion there is from the average. 3.抽样分布：In statistics, a sampling distribution is the probability distribution of a given statistic based on a random sample. 标准误差：Standard error -The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the statistic is referred to as the standard
4、 error of that quantity. 4.参数估计：Parameter estimation is the process that uses the samples from a population to estimate the parameter of the population, such as the population mean, the population variance, etc. 5.假设检验：Statistical hypothesis testing is making a hypothesis about the parameter or dist
5、ribution of a population in advance, then using the sample information to determine whether the hypothesis is reasonable or not. 显著性水平：The amount of evidence required to accept that an event is unlikely to have arisen by chance is known as the significance level or critical p-value. Null/Alternate h
6、ypothesis: 零假设 备择假设 计量经济学 Econometrics i, knmetriks has been defined as the application of mathematics and statistical methods to economic data and described as the branch of economics that aims to give empirical empirikl content to economic relations. 相关分析：Correlation analysisanalyze the relationsh
7、ip between two variablesusually using the correlation coefficient to describe the relationship: R=1 perfect correlation R=0 uncorrelated R is between 0 and 1: partial correlation 回归分析：Regression analysis: linear regression is an approach to modeling the relationship between a scalar variable y and o
8、ne or more explanatory variables denoted X. Simple regression: one explanatory variable Multiple regression: More than one explanatory variable 可决系数在数值上等于简单线性相关系数的平方 Coefficient of determination is numerically equal to the square of a simple linear correlation coefficient. 多重共线性multicollinearity ,ml
9、tikliniriti：Multicollinearity correlated. is a statistical phenomenon in which two or more predictor variables in a multiple regression model are highly Remedies： Ridge regression；Obtain more data, if possible; Drop one of the variables. 异方差性Heteroscedasticity ,hetruskdstisti：if there are sub-popula
10、tions that have different variabilities than others. Remedies：Weighted least squares 自相关Auto correlation：Auto correlation is the phenomenon that there exists correlativity among the random error terms. Remedies: The Generalized Difference Method 西方经济学 Macroeconomics：Macroeconomics is a branch of eco
11、nomics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the entire economy. This includes a national, regional, or global economy. Measures of national income and output: to estimate total economic activity in a country or region, including gross domestic product (GDP), gros
12、s national product (GNP), and net national income (NNI) -The expenditure approach. It focuses on finding the total output of a nation by finding the total amount of money spent. C = household consumption, I = gross private domestic investment, G = government consumption and gross investment, X = gro
13、ss exports of goods and services, M = gross imports of goods and services -The income approach. It equates the total output of a nation to the total factor income received by people of the nation. National income = Compensation of employees + Net interest + Rental & royalty income + Profit of firms
14、+ Income from self-employment + NFIA (net factor income from abroad). The IS/LM model (Investment Saving/Liquidity preference Money supply) is a macroeconomic tool that demonstrates the relationship between interest rates and real output in the goods and services market and the money market. The IS
15、curve is defined by the equation: where Y represents income, C(Y T(Y) represents consumer spending as an increasing function of disposable income (income, Y, minus taxes, T(Y), which themselves depend positively on income), I(r) represents investment as a decreasing function of the real interest rat
16、e, G represents government spending, and NX(Y) represents net exports (exports minus imports) as a decreasing function of income (decreasing because imports are an increasing function of income). In this equation, the level of G (government spending) is presumed to be exogenous, meaning that it is t
17、aken as a given. The LM curve is defined by the equation: M / P = L(i,Y), where the supply of money is represented as the real amount M/P (as opposed to the nominal amount M), with P representing the price level, and L being the real demand for money, which is some function of the interest rate i an
18、d the level Y of real income. The LM curve shows the combinations of interest rates and levels of real income for which money supply equals money demandthat is, for which the money market is in equilibrium. Microeconomics: Microeconomics is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of how the
19、individual modern household and firms make decisions to allocate limited resources. Demand curve: In economics, the demand curve is the graph depicting the relationship between the price of a certain commodity, and the amount of it that consumers are willing and able to purchase at that given price.
20、 Supply curve: A graph showing the hypothetical supply of a product or service that would be available at different price points. Price elasticity of demand: Price elasticity of demand (PED or Ed) is a measure used in economics to show the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the quantity demanded of a
21、 good or service to a change in its price. Point-price elasticity: Arc elasticity: Price elasticity of supply: Price elasticity of supply (PES or Es) is a measure used in economics to show the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the quantity supplied of a good or service to a change in its price. E1，t
22、he demand for/supply of the good is said to be elastic; That is, changes in price have a relatively small effect on the quantity of the good demanded/supplied. E1，the demand for/supply of the good is said to be inelastic; That is, changes in price have a relatively large effect on the quantity of a
23、good demanded/supplied. E=0 indicates that quantity demanded/supplied does not respond to a price change: it is fixed in demand/supply. Indifference curve: An indifference curve is a graph showing different bundles of goods between which a consumer is indifferent. That is, at each point on the curve
24、, the consumer has no preference for one bundle over another. Marginal rate of substitution: In economics, the marginal rate of substitution is the rate at which a consumer is ready to give up one good in exchange for another good while maintaining the same level of utility. Substitution effect & In
25、come effect: budget constraint 预算线 Substitution effect: The substitution effect is the effect observed with changes in relative price of goods. Construct the demand curve for good Y. Income effect: Price effect as sum of substitution and income effects If the good in question is a normal good, then
26、the income effect from the rise in purchasing power from a price fall reinforces the substitution effect. If the good is an inferior good, then the income effect will offset in some degree the substitution effect. If the income effect for an inferior good is sufficiently strong, the consumer will bu
27、y less of the good when it becomes less expensive, a Giffen good (commonly believed to be a rarity). Production function In microeconomics and macroeconomics, a production function is a function that specifies the output of a firm, an industry, or an entire economy for all combinations of inputs. Li
28、near function :Q = a + bX1 + cX2 + dX3 + . Cobb-Douglas production function: The Leontief production function applies to situations in which inputs must be used in fixed proportions: The long-term total cost/long-term average cost curve is the envelope curve of many short-term total cost/ short-term
29、 average cost curves. 货币银行学 Money and Banking Functions of money: Money functions as a medium of exchange(intermediate the exchange of goods and services), a unit of account(a standard numerical unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions), a standard of deferr
30、ed payment(an accepted way to settle a debt a unit in which debts are denominated), and a store of value(a money must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved). Money creation: Money creation is the process by which the money supply of a country or a monetary region (such as the Eurozone)
31、 is increased. First, the central bank introduces new money into the economy (termed expansionary monetary policy) by purchasing financial assets or lending money to financial institutions. Second, the new money introduced by the central bank is multiplied by commercial banks through fractional rese
32、rve banking B(base money)=R(reserve deposit)+C(cash outside the bank system) Money supply(C+D)=m(money multiplier)B (D=derivative money) Derivative multiplier: K=D/R=1/r, where r is the required reserve ratio D=R1 /r Money multiplier: m=(C+D)/(C+R) Money Demand Theory: Fisher Equation of Exchange: M
33、V=PT, where M is the amount of money, V is the velocity of the money, P is the weighted average price of all the goods and service, T is the quantity of goods and service. Keynesian theory: M=M1+M2=L1(Y) +L2(r) Money supply: The different types of money are typically classified as Ms: M0=cash in cir
34、culation M1=M0+demand deposits -narrow money M2=M1+time deposits + saving deposits + other deposits -broad money Fisher equation: Letting r denote the real interest rate, i denote the nominal interest rate, and let denote the inflation rate, the Fisher equation is: i = r + Monetary Policy: Monetary
35、policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country controls the supply of money, often targeting a rate of interest for the purpose of promoting economic growth and stability. The official goals usually include relatively stable prices and low unemployment It is referred to as either
36、 being expansionary or contractionary, where an expansionary policy increases the total supply of money in the economy more rapidly than usual, and contractionary policy expands the money supply more slowly than usual or even shrinks it. Tools: open market operation & adjusting in the discount rate
37、& adjusting the required reserve ratio Fiscal Policy: Fiscal policy is the use of government expenditure and revenue collection (taxation) to influence the economy. Changes in the level and composition of taxation and government spending can impact the following variables in the economy: 1.Aggregate
38、 demand and the level of economic activity; 总需求和经济活动水平 2.The pattern of resource allocation; 资源分配模式 3. The distribution of income. 收入再分配 Stances of fiscal policy： A neutral stance of fiscal policy implies a balanced economy. This results in a large tax revenue. Government spending is fully funded by
39、 tax revenue and overall the budget outcome has a neutral effect on the level of economic activity. An expansionary stance of fiscal policy involves government spending exceeding tax revenue. A contractionary fiscal policy occurs when government spending is lower than tax revenue. 中央银行Central bank F
40、unctions of Central Bank: Bank of issue: concentrate deposit reserve, lender of last resort, organize national settlement Bank of bank: The business object of central bank is commercial banks and other financial institutions. Bank of state: Implement the financial and fiscal policies; be responsible
41、 for Treasury revenues and expenditures; provide financial service for the state. Independence of central bank: It is usually defined as the central banks operational and management independence from the government. -Inflation In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods
42、 and services in an economy over a period of time. A chief measure of price inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index (normally the Consumer Price Index) over time. Today the primary tool for controlling inflation is monetary policy. -Perfectly/Imperf
43、ectly Competitive Market Perfect competition describes markets such that no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product. Monopolistic competition is imperfect competition where many competing producers sell products that are differentiated from on
44、e another (that is, the products are substitutes but, because of differences such as branding, not exactly alike) Oligarchy International Economics 国际经济学 International economics is concerned with the effects upon economic activity of international differences in productive resources and consumer pre
45、ferences and the institutions that affect them. .International Trade Classical theories: Mercantilism: The amount of money is the only factor to define the affluence of a country. All the country should pursue surplus in international trade. Absolute advantage theory: Adam Smith All nations should f
46、ocus on producing the goods of which they have absolute advantages, then they could use some of the goods to exchange for other goods of which they do not have absolute advantages. Comparative advantage theory: David Ricardo In economics, the law of comparative advantage says that two countries will
47、 both gain from trade if, in the absence of trade, they have different relative costs for producing the same goods. Even if one country is more efficient in the production of all goods (absolute advantage) than the other, both countries will still gain by trading with each other, as long as they hav
48、e different relative efficiencies Modern theory: H-O model (Factor endowment theorem): The model essentially says that countries will export products that use their abundant and cheap factor(s) of production and import products that use the countries scarce factor(s). .International Finance International finance is the branch of economics that studies the dynamics of
