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1、Linguistics语言学归纳Linguistics 1.The scope of linguistics:(a branch of linguistics that.) phonetics: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language) phonology:the study of how speech sounds in a
2、 language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. morphology:the study of theword structure and word formation. syntax:is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. semantics: (语义学) the study of linguis
3、tic meaning. pragmatics:a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication. Some distinctions in linguistics: 1) Prescriptive& descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules
4、for “correct & standard”behavior in using language.(doctor) 1 2) Synchronic&diachronic共时的&历时的 Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history. Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time. 3) Langue & parole语言&言语 Langue: refers to the abstract lingu
5、istic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use. 4) Competence&performance语言能力&语言运用 Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communi
6、cation. Design features of language: 1) arbitrariness: means there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 2) Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 3) Duality:duality of structure or double articulation of language enables user
7、s to talk about anything within their knowledge. 4) Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制 5) Cultural transmission 文化传播 2 2.Functions of language: 1) Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information,
8、 which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. 2) Expressive function: supplies information about the users feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. 3) Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. 3 Phone:is a phonetic unit or segment. P
9、honeme:is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. 3.Morphemes词素the minimal units of meaning The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself. Bound morpheme: a morp
10、heme must be attached to another one. Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素)the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed.(-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er)标出 Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are at
11、tached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing)标出 4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb. Non-traditional categories: determi
12、ner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua) Phrase elements :specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers. Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句 Surface structure 4 5. Lexical meaning: Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a ling
13、uistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, features Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other 6. Context: it i
14、s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth) Speech act theory: (John Austin) Locutionary act:is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses. Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the act of pe
15、rformed in saying something. Perlocutionary act:is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice) The maxim of quantity: Say no less than the conversation requires. Say no more
16、than the conversation requires. The maxim of quality: 5 Dont say what you believe to be false. Dont say things for which you lack evidence. The maxim of manner: Dont be obscure.Dont be ambiguous. Be brief.Be orderly. The maxim of relevance:Be relevant. 7. Language change Addition of new words: 1) Co
17、inage:创新词 Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato 2) Clipped words: 缩略词 Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger 3) Blending: 紧缩法 Smog-smoke+fogbrunch-breakfast+lunchcamcorder-camera+recorder 4) Acronyms: 首字母缩略词 CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technology
18、 EU VIP B2B CPI 5) Back-formation: 逆构词法 To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate 6) Function shift 6 n.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreat adj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow 7) Borrowing Bonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balcony Balloon opera pump tea tofu
19、kowtow sampan zero Kungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage 8) Derivation 派生词 Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restate anti-pollution unfair realize happiness 9) Compounds 复合词 Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-license Undertake without landlady handover whitewash 8.Registe
20、r 语域 Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity. Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other. Mo
21、de of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out. 7 9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔沃尔夫假说 Language filters peoples perception ang the way they categorize their experiences. 10.Language Acquisition Theories of child language acquisit
22、ion: 1) The behaviorist Imitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming) But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language. 2) The innatist Language Acquisition device(LAD)
23、 Chomsky It proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability. It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language. Universal Grammar (UG) 8 3) The interactionist It holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human
24、characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows. motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talk Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric Lenneberg LAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right timea specific and limited time period for language acquisition. Two
25、 versions: Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. 11. Second Language Acquisition Positive transfer正迁移 faci
26、litate Negative transfer 负迁移 interfere or hinder Interlanguage中介语 It was established as learners independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the se
27、cond language. 9 Fossilization 石化现象 It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Acquisition 习得 It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learning学习 It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules. 10
